Lecture 14

Recap
• Problem Solving
• GA
• Simple GA
• Examples of Mutation and
Crossover
• Application Areas
 Course Outline
Advanced
Introduction Expert Systems Topics

Problem
Solving Uncertainty Conclusion

Genetic
Algorithms Learning

Knowledge
Representation Planning
& Reasoning
 Lecture Contents
• Types of Knowledge: procedural,
declarative, meta, heuristic, structural
• Knowledge Representation Techniques
– Facts
– Object-attribute Value Triplets
– Semantic Networks
– Frames
– Logic:
• Propositional Calculus
• Predicate Calculus
 The AI Cycle
LEARNING
PERCEPTION
KNOWLEDGE

REPRESENTATION
REASONING
(KR)

PLANNING

EXECUTION
 The Dilemma
• We do not know how the KR and reasoning
components are implemented in humans,
even though we can see their manifestation in
the form of intelligent behavior.
• Hence, the need for a synthetic (artificial) way
to model the knowledge representation and
reasoning capability of humans in computers.
 The Simple Approach
• Instead of focusing on how knowledge is
acquired, we will assume for now that
knowledge is externally injected into the system.
• For now, we focus on how to represent some
given knowledge and then how to reason about
that knowledge for the purpose of inference
• Knowledge acquisition and learning will be
discussed later
 What is Knowledge

• “Understanding of a subject area”

Durkin
• Domain: A well-focused subject area
 Types of Knowledge
• Procedural knowledge: Describes how to do things, provides a set of
directions of how to perform certain tasks, e.g., how to drive a car
• Declarative knowledge: It describes objects, rather than processes.
What is known about a situation. e.g. it is sunny today, cherries are
red
• Meta knowledge: Knowledge about knowledge, e.g., the knowledge
that blood pressure is more important for diagnosing a medical
condition than eye color.
• Heuristic knowledge: Rule-of-thumb. e.g. if I start seeing shops, I am
close to the market.
– Sometimes called shallow knowledge.
– Empirical as opposed to deterministic
• Structural knowledge: Describes structures and their relationships.
e.g. the how the various parts of the car fit together to make a car, or
knowledge structures in terms of concepts, sub concepts, and objects.
 Types of Knowledge
Structural Declarative
Relationships Knowledge Knowledge Objects
between Facts
Objects,
Concepts

Knowledge
Heuristic
Procedural
Knowledge Rules
Rules Knowledge
of
Procedures Thumb
Methods

Meta-
Knowledge Knowledge
about
Knowledge
Towards Representation

• There are multiple approaches that come to

mind
– Pictures and symbols. This is how the earliest
humans represented knowledge when
sophisticated linguistic systems had not yet
evolved
– Graphs and Networks
– Numbers
Representation: Pictures
• What types of knowledge is best represented using
pictures? e.g. can we represent the relationship between
individuals in a family using a picture?
• To store procedural knowledge, we could use a series of
pictures. e.g. how to boil an egg. A series of pictures
showing the process.
– Pictures are best suited for recognition tasks
– Structural information
• How useful is such a representation for a computer?
– Not very easily translated to useful information because
computers cannot interpret pictures automatically.
– But useful for human understanding because they allow a high
level view of a concept to be obtained readily.
 Representation:
Graphs & Networks
• Graphs and Networks allow relationships
between entities to be incorporated, e.g., to
show family relationships, now we can use a
graph.
Tariq Ayesha

Amina Hassan Mona

Ali
 Graphs and Networks
• May be used to represent procedural
knowledge.
• e.g.How to start a car?

Insert Key Turn Ignition Press Clutch Set Gear

 Representation:
Numbers
• Numbers are an integral part of the
knowledge representation used by
humans.
• Translate easily to computer
representation.
• Eventually, every representation we use
gets translated to numbers in the
computers internal representation.
Knowledge of a Family
• By a picture
• By a graph
• Description in words
– Tariq is Mona’s Father
– Ayesha is Mona’s
Mother
– Mona is Tariq and Tariq Ayesha
Ayesha’s Daughter
Mona
Formal KR Techniques
• Now, we will discuss some formal
methods of knowledge representation in
AI.
• Each method is suited to representing a
certain type of knowledge.
• Choosing the proper representation is
important because it must facilitate
reasoning. As the saying goes ‘Knowledge
is Power’.
 Facts
• Facts are a basic block of knowledge (the atomic
units of knowledge)
• They represent declarative knowledge.
• A Proposition is the statement of a fact. Each
proposition has an associated truth value. It may
be true or false.
• In AI, to represent a fact, we use a proposition
and its associated truth value
• e.g.
– Proposition A: It is raining
– Proposition B: I have an umbrella
– Proposition C: I will go to school
 Types of facts
• single-valued or multiple –valued: e.g. an
individual can only have one eye color, but may
have many cars. So the value of attribute cars
may contain more than one value.
• uncertain facts: e.g. it will probably be sunny
today. We may chose to store numerical
certainty values with such facts.
• fuzzy facts, which are ambiguous in nature.
e.g. The book is heavy/light. Fuzzy
representation used. Use certainty factor values
to specify value of “truth”.
 Object-Attribute-Value
Triplets
• A type of fact composed of three parts
• Used to assert a particular property of some object.
• e.g. Ali’s eye color is brown.
– Object: Ali
– Attribute: eye color
– Value: brown Ali Eye Color
Brown
• e.g. Ahmed’s son is Ali
Object Attribute Value
– Object: Ahmed
– Attribute: son
Ahmed Color Red
– Value: Ali
Object Attribute Value
 Rules
• “A Knowledge structure that relates some
known information to other information that
can be concluded or inferred to be true.”
(Durkin)
• Represent procedural knowledge
• Components of a rule
– Antecedent or premise: IF part
– Consequent or conclusion: THEN part
• e.g. IF it is raining THEN I will not go to school
– Premise: It is raining
– Conclusion: I will not go to school.
 Compound Rules
• Multiple premises may be joined
using AND (conjunctions) and OR
(disjunctions)
• e.g.
IF it is raining AND I have an umbrella
THEN I will go to school.
IF it is raining OR it is snowing THEN I
will not go to school
 Types of Rules
• Relationship
– e.g. IF you hear a loud sound THEN the
silencer is not working
• Recommendation
– IF it is raining THEN bring an umbrella
• Directive
– IF it is raining AND you don’t have an
umbrella THEN wait for the rain to stop
 Types of Rules (Cont.)
• Variable Rules
– If the same type of rule is to be applied to multiple
objects, we use variable rules, i.e. rules with variables
– e.g.
If X is a Student
AND X’s GPA>3.7
THEN place X on honor roll.
• Such rules are called pattern-matching rules.
• The rule is matched with known facts and
different possibilities for the variables are tested,
to determine the truth of the fact.
 Types of Rules (Cont.)
• Uncertain Rules
– e.g. IF you have never won a match THEN you will
most probably not win this time.
• Meta Rules
– Rules that describe how to use other rules
– e.g. IF You are coughing AND you have chest
congestion THEN use the set of respiratory disease
rules.
• Rule Sets
– As in the previous example, we may group rules into
categories in our knowledge representation, e.g. the
set of respiratory disease rules