Chapter 2 – Voltage and Current

Lecture 1
Reference:
Introductory Circuit Dr. Mona Sayed
Analysis
Robert L. Boylestad
 Objectives
Become aware of the basic atomic structure
Understand how the terminal voltage of a battery or any dc supply is
established and how it creates a flow of charge in the system.
Understand how current is established in a circuit and how its
magnitude is affected by the charge flowing in the system and the
time involved.
Become familiar with the factors that affect the terminal voltage of a
battery and how long a battery will remain effective.
Be able to apply a voltmeter and ammeter correctly to measure the
voltage and current of a network.
 2.2 – Atoms and Their Structure
A basic understanding of the fundamental concepts of current and
voltage requires a degree of familiarity with the atom and its
structure.
 Nucleus
Protons
Neutrons
Electrons
The orbiting electron carries a negative charge equal in magnitude
to the positive charge of the proton.
The nucleus also contains neutrons, which are slightly heavier than
protons and have no electrical charge.
The atomic structure of any stable atom has an equal number of
electrons and protons
 Atoms and Their Structure
 
 2.2 – Atoms and Their Structure
 
 2.3 - Voltage
The separation of charge to establish regions of positive and negative charge is
the action that occurs in every battery. Through chemical action, a heavy
concentration of positive charge (positive ions) is established at the positive
terminal, with an equally heavy concentration of negative charge (electrons) at the
negative terminal.
In general,
every source of voltage is established by simply creating a separation of positive
and negative charges.
 Voltage

Figure. 2: Defining the voltage between two points

 Voltage
 

if a total of 1 joule (J) of energy is used to move the negative charge of

1 coulomb (C), there is a difference of 1 volt (V) between the two points.
 Voltage
The defining equation is:

The charge is measured in coulombs, the energy in joules, and the voltage in volts.
The unit of measurement volt was chosen to honor Alessandro Volta.
If the charge is now moved all the way to the surface of the larger negative charge
as shown in Fig. 2(c), using 2 joules of energy, therefore there are 2 volts between
the two charged bodies.
If the package of positive and negative charge is larger, as shown in Fig. 2(d),
more energy will have to be expended to overcome the larger repulsive forces of
the large negative charge and attractive forces of the large positive charge.
As shown in Fig. 2(d), 4.8 joules of energy were expended, resulting in a voltage
of 4.8 V between the two points.
Voltage
 Voltage
 Notations for sources of voltage and loss of
potential
 E - Voltage sources (volts)
 V - Voltage drops (volts)
 Potential – The voltage at a point with respect
to another point in the electrical system.
Typically the reference point is the ground, which
is at zero potential.
 2.4 - Current
 The free electron is the charge carrier in a copper wire
or any other solid conductor of electricity
 With no external forces applied, the net flow of charge
in a conductor in any one direction is zero
 Basic electric circuit
 2.4 - Current
 
 Current
 The unit of current measurement, ampere, was chosen to
honor the efforts of André Ampère in the study of electricity in
motion.
Using the coulomb as the unit of charge, the current in amperes
can be determined using the following equation:
Current
 Current
 Safety considerations
 Even small levels of current through the human
body can cause serious, dangerous side effects
 Any current over 10 mA is considered dangerous
currents of 50 mA can cause severe shock
currents over 100 mA can be fatal
 Treat electricity with respect – not fear
 2.5 – Voltage Sources

 dc – Direct current
 Unidirectional (“one direction”) flow of charge
 Supplies that provide a fixed voltage or current

Figure. 2.4: Standard symbol for a dc voltage source

 Voltage Sources
 dc Voltage sources can be divided into three
basic types:
 Batteries (chemical action or solar energy)
 Generators (electromechanical)
 Power supplies (rectification)
 Voltage Sources
 Batteries: combination of two or more similar cells
 A cell being a fundamental source of electrical energy
developed through the conversion of chemical or solar energy
 All cells are divided into Primary and Secondary types
 Primary type is not rechargeable
 Secondary is rechargeable; the cell can be reversed to restore its capacity
 Two most common rechargeable batteries are the lead-acid unit (used primarily
automobile) and the nickel-cadmium used in (calculators, tools, photoflash units
and shavers)
The obvious advantages of rechargeable units are the
savings in time and money of not continually replacing
discharged primary cells.
 Voltage Sources
 Each cell establishes a potential difference at
the expense of chemical energy and each has
the following components:
 Positive electrode
 Negative electrode
 Electrolyte (the contact element and the source of
ions for conduction between terminals)
 Primary cells
 Alkaline primary cells
 Powered zinc anode (+)
 Potassium (alkali metal) electrolyte
 Manganese dioxide, carbon cathode (–)
 Primary cells

In Fig. 2.12(b), note that for the cylindrical types (AAA, AA, C, and D), the
voltage is the same for each, but the ampere-hour (Ah) rating increases
significantly with size.
The ampere-hour rating is an indication of the level of current that the battery
can provide for a specified period of time.
 Primary cells
Another type of popular primary cell is the lithium battery, shown in
Fig.2.13.Again, note that the voltage is the same for each, but the size increases
substantially with the ampere-hour rating and the rated drain current.
In general, therefore,
for batteries of the same type, the size is dictated primarily by the standard drain
current or ampere-hour rating, not by the terminal voltage rating.

FIG. 2.13 : Lithium primary batteries

 Secondary cell
 Lead-acid secondary cell
 Sulfuric acid is the electrolyte
 The electrodes are spongy lead (Pb) and lead
peroxide (Pb02)
 Secondary cells
 Nickel-cadmium secondary cell
 Rechargeable battery (Capable of 1,000 charge/discharge cycles)
 charged by a constant current source
 Nickel-hydrogen and nickel-metal hydride secondary cells
 Nickel-hydrogen cell currently limited primarily to space vehicles
 Nickel-metal hydride cell is actually a hybrid of the nickel-cadmium
and nickel-hydrogen cell – Expensive, but it is a valid option for
applications such as portable computers
Secondary cells
 Secondary cells
 How a secondary cell should be recharged?
Generally, the battery can be used until there is some indication that
the energy level is low, such as a dimming light from a flashlight, less
power from a drill, or a low-battery indicator.
The secondary cells do have some “memory.” If they are recharged
continuously after being used for a short period of time, they may
begin to believe they are short-term units and actually fail to hold the
charge for the rated period of time.
 In any event, always try to avoid a “hard” discharge, which results
when every bit of energy is drained from a cell.
Too many hard discharge cycles will reduce the cycle life of the
battery.
 Voltage Sources
 Solar cell
 A fixed illumination of the solar cell will provide a fairly
steady dc voltage for driving loads from watches to
automobiles
 Conversion efficiencies are currently between 10% and
14%
 Voltage Sources
 Ampere-hour rating
 Batteries have a capacity rating in ampere-hours
 A battery with an ampere-hour rating of 100 will theoretically
provide a steady current of 1A for 100 h, 2A for 50 h or 10A for 10 h
 Factors affecting the rating: rate of discharge and temperature
The capacity of a dc battery decreases with an increase in the current
demand
The capacity of a dc battery decreases at relatively (compared to room
temperature) low and high temperatures
Voltage Sources
 Voltage Sources
 Generators
 Voltage and power-handling capabilities of the dc
generator are typically higher than those of most
batteries, and its lifetime is determined only by its
construction
 Power supplies
 The dc supply encountered most frequently in the
laboratory employs the rectification and filtering
processes as its means toward obtaining a steady dc
voltage
 Voltage Sources
 dc Current sources
 The current source will supply, ideally, a fixed
current to an electrical/electronic system, even though
there may be variations in the terminal voltage as
determined by the system
 2.8 Conductors and Insulators
Conductors are those materials that permit a
generous flow of electrons with very little external force
(voltage) applied
In addition,
Good conductors typically have only one electron in
the valance (most distant from the nucleus) ring.
 Conductors and Insulators
 Insulators are those materials that have very few free
electrons and require a large applied potential (voltage) to
establish a measurable current level.
 Insulators are commonly used as covering for current-
carrying wire, which, if uninsulated, could cause dangerous
side effects.
 Rubber gloves and rubber mats are used to help insulated
workers when working on power lines.
 Even the best insulator will break down if a sufficiently large
potential is applied across it.
 Conductors and Insulators

Table 2.1 shows the relative conductivity of various materials

Table 2.2 shows breakdown strength of some common insulators
 2.9 Semiconductors
Semiconductors are a specific group of elements that exhibit
characteristics between those of insulators and conductors
Semiconductor materials typically have four electrons in the
outermost valence ring
Although silicon (Si) is the most extensively employed material,
germanium (Ge) and gallium arsenide (GaAs) are also used in
many important devices.
Semiconductors are further characterized as being
photoconductive and having a negative temperature coefficient
Photoconductivity: Photons from incident light can increase the carrier
density in the material and thereby the charge flow level
Negative temperature coefficient: Resistance will decrease with an
increase in temperature (opposite to that of most conductors)
 2.10 Ammeters and Voltmeters
 Ammeter (Milliammeter or Microammeter)
 Used to measure current levels
 Must be placed in the network such that the charge
will flow through the meter
 Voltmeter
 Used to measure the potential difference between
two points
 Ammeters and Voltmeters
 Volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM) and digital multimeter (DMM)
 Both instruments will measure voltage and current and a
third quantity, resistance
 The VOM uses an analog scale, which requires
interpreting the position of the pointer on a continuous scale
The DMM provides a display of numbers with decimal point
accuracy determined by the chosen scale.
 Ammeters and Voltmeters

 Ammeters and Voltmeters

 2.11 Applications
 Flashlight
 Simplest of electrical circuits
 Batteries are connected in series to provide a
higher voltage (sum of the battery voltages)
 Applications
 12-V Car battery charger
 Used to convert 120-V ac outlet power to dc charging
power for a 12-V automotive battery, using a transformer
to step down the voltage, diodes to rectify the ac (convert
it to dc), and in some cases a regulator to provide a dc
voltage that varies with level of charge.
 Applications
 12-V Car battery charger

FIG. 2.32: Battery charger: (a) external appearance; (b) internal

construction
 Applications
 Answering machines/Phones dc supply
 A wide variety of devices receive their dc operating
voltage from an ac/dc conversion system
 The conversion system uses a transformer to step
the voltage down to the appropriate level, then diodes
“rectify” the ac to dc, and capacitors provide filtering
to smooth out the dc.