Presenting by

SOUNDARARAJAN.K.
A
M.Tech R.S & GIS
• Definition:
Surveying is the science and art of determining
the relative positions of points above, on, or
beneath the earth’s surface and locating the
points in the field.
1. Plane Surveying – reference base for
fieldwork and computations are assumed to be
a flat horizontal surface.
2. Geodetic Surveying – determination relative
positions of widely spaced points, lengths, and
directions which require the consideration of
the size and shape of the earth. (Takes the
earth’s curvature into account.)
1. Chain Survey.
2. Theodolite Survey.
3. Traverse Survey.
4. Triangulation Survey.
5. Tacheometric Survey.
6. Plane Table Survey.
7. Photographic Survey.
8. Advanced Survey.
This classification is based on the instruments or
methods used.
• Measuring of Linear measurements of small extent
• Used for boundary description of land parcels or
about the simple details of the land.
• Chain Triangulation – Skeleton of Triangles .
• Well Conditioned triangles.
• This includes the connected survey lines and the
directions alongwith the lengths.
• Methods – chain, chain & compass, transit tape
and plane-table. Types – Open and Closed.
• Direction measuring instruments – surveyor
compass(Quadrantal bearing) and prismatic
compass(Whole circle bearing).
• Angle measuring instruments – Sextant and
Theodolite.
• Check #1 – Close horizon when turning
• If traverse closes: sum of the interior angles should
equal the sum of (N-2)X180, N = Number of sides
• 3 angles = (3-2) 180 = 180
• 4 angles = (4-2) 180 = 360
• If an exterior angle exists, subtract it from 360 to
obtain the interior 
• Angular closure should be checked before leaving
the field
• To measure horizontal and vertical angles.
• Types – transit and non-transit or plain.
• Methods of horizontal angles measurement –
repetition and reiteration.
• Principle – It is based on the trigonometric
position that if one side and three angles of a
triangle is known then other sides can be
measured by sine rule.
• Methods – Reconnaissance.
Erection of signals and towers.
Measurement of horizontal angles.
Astronomical observation( for true meridian and
absolute position).
Measurement of Base line.
Other required computations.
• This type of survey uses the same transit
theodolite fitted with stadia diaphragm.
• To measure the vertical and horizontal distances
of points.
• Types of telescope – external & internal focussing
and external focusing anallactic telescope.
• Categories – Fixed hair method, movable hair
method and tangential system.
• Anallactic lens must be provided in external
focusing telescope.
• This is a Graphical method of surveying in
which the field observation and plotting
proceed simultaneously.
• Instruments used – plane table, alidade,
plumbing fork & plumb bob, Spirit level,
Compass and drawing paper with rainproof
cover.
• Methods – radiation, intersection, traversing
and resection(by compass, backsighting, 3
point and 2 point problem).
• Obtaining reliable information through the
measurements done from the photographs
taken at various camera stations.
• Types – terrestial/ground photogrammetry and
aerial photogrammetry.
• Method of Representing:
• Most common is Contour Line – Imaginary line on
surface of the earth passing through points that
have equal elevation
• Contour Interval – Vertical distance between lines
»Topo map with contour lines shows elevation of
points on ground & shapes of topographic
features (hills, etc.)
1. Each contour must close upon itself with within a
map or outside its borders – a contour line cannot
end on a map except at the edge
2. Contours do not cross or meet except in caves, cliffs
& vertical walls where they can meet
3. Contour lines crossing streams form V’s pointing
upstream
4. Contour lines crossing a ridge form U’s pointing
down the ridge
5. Contour lines tend to parallel streams
6. Contour lines are uniformly spaced on uniform
slopes
7. Horizontal spacing between contour lines
indicated steepness of slope on ground
8. Contours are generally perpendicular to
direction of maximum slope
9. Contours can never branch into 2 contours of
the same elevation
• Leveling is the determination of the elevation of a
point or difference between points referenced to
some datum
• The level surface parallels the curvature of the earth
a level line is a curved line, normal () at all
points to plumbline
Terms:
1. Datum
2. Mean Sea Level (MSL)
3. Benchmark.
• Most common leveling instrument today is the
Automatic or Self-leveling level – has an
internal compensator that automatically provides
a horizontal line of sight and maintains this
through gravity (prism hanging on pendulum)
• Differential Leveling: (Spirit Leveling) Most
common type today
• Process:
1. Reading on point of known elevation (BS)
2. BS reading + BM elevation = HI
3. Reading on point of unknown elevation (FS)
4. HI – FS = elevation of new point
• Difference in measured elevation and known
elevation
• Correction factor = closure / # turns
Error = 0.09’
Turns = 12 Correction = 0.0075’ / turn

• If TBM’s set, break circuit into sections

• Figure correction factor the same
• Figure correction by taking CF X # turns in section
• Distance range was about 10km during
daylight and 25km at night
• Two similar units at the ends of the line, one
sends and the other receives and resends the
signal.
• Types – Microwave EDM and Electro-optical
EDM.
• Developed in early 1980’ s (Dept. of Defense)
• Made up of 26 satellites (24 functioning & 2 spares)
• Each satellite is 20,000 km high (off Earth’s surface)
• Minimum of 3 satellites needed, but 4-5 preferred
• Need satellites at least 15° above horizon
• Need 2-3 receivers ($80-$100K per system)
• Differential GPS – one receiver on known point as
antenna, other receiver on unknowns
• GIS are computer programs that allow users to store,
retrieve, manipulate, analyze and display spatial data
• Spatial Data (Geographic data) – any data that represents
information about the Earth
GIS components
• Recent definitions of GIS suggest that is consists of:
1.Hardware (computer and operating system)
2.Software Geographic/Spatial

3.Data Non-Geographic/Aspatial/Attribute
4.Human Operators and Institutional Infrastructure
• DEM (Digital Elevation Model) – Digital terrain
representation technique, where elevation values are
stored in raster cells