Chemistry A-Level

3.2 Inorganic chemistry
Subject content: 3.2.1 Periodicity
3.2.2 Group 2, the alkaline earth metals
3.2.3 Group 7(17), the halogens
3.2.4 
Properties of Period 3 elements and their oxides (A-level only)
3.1 Physical chemistry 3.2.5 Transition metals (A-level only)
3.1.1 Atomic structure 3.2.6 Reactions of ions in aqueous solution (A-level only)
3.1.2 Amount of substance
3.1.3 Bonding 3.3 Organic chemistry
3.3.1 Introduction to organic chemistry
3.1.4 Energetics 3.3.2 Alkanes
3.1.5 Kinetics 3.3.3 Halogenoalkanes
3.3.4 Alkenes
3.1.6 Chemical equilibria, Le Chatelier’s principle and Kc
3.3.5 Alcohols
3.1.7 Oxidation, reduction and redox equations 3.3.6 Organic analysis
3.1.8 Thermodynamics (A-level only) 3.3.7 Optical isomerism (A-level only)
3.3.8 Aldehydes and ketones (A-level only)
3.1.9 Rate equations (A-level only)
3.3.9 Carboxylic acids and derivatives (A-level only)
3.1.10 Equilibrium constant Kp 3.3.10 Aromatic chemistry (A-level only)
 for homogeneous systems (A-level only) 3.3.11 Amines (A-level only)
3.1.11  3.3.12 Polymers (A-level only)
Electrode potentials and electrochemical cells (A-level 3.3.13 Amino acids, proteins and DNA (A-level only)
only) 3.3.14 Organic synthesis (A-level only)
3.1.12 Acids and bases (A-level only) 3.3.15 
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (A-level only)
3.3.16 Chromatography (A-level only)
 Atomic structure
• Electrons: relative mass = 1/1840
• Atomic number: Z
• Mass number: A
• H+ = proton
• Chemical Properties: electrons/ how elements bond ( isotopes have the same chemical properties)
• Physical Properties: melting point, boiling point, density ( isotopes have different physical properties)
Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry
• Used to find abundance and mass of each isotope in an element in order to find RAM, and to find relative molecular mass of
substances made of molecules.
• Stage 1: Ionisation = Electron impact – used for elements and low Mr compounds
electron gun used to fire high energy electrons at the sample so that one electron from each
atom/molecule form 1+ ions: X(g) -> X+(g) + e-
Electrospray ionisation – used for high Mr compounds (protein)
sample dissolved in volatile solvent (water/ethanol) and injected through a fine hypodermic needle as
an aerosol into a vacuum in the ionisation chamber, the needle is positively charged, the particles gain
a proton and become ions as a fine mist: X(g) + H+(g) -> XH+(g)
the solvent evaporates leaving 1+ ions
• Stage 2: Acceleration = ions are accelerated using an electric field so that all particles have the same KE
• Stage 3: Flight tube = ion drift – ions enter flight tube, masses of particles determine their TOF, the lighter the ion the faster
the shorter their TOF.
• Stage 4: Detection = the detector is a negatively charged plate, a current is produced when ions reach plate, the mass
spectrum shows the abundance of each mass that hit the plate, the Mr of the particles is usually 1 less
than on the spectrum.
 
Electron Arrangement (Quantum theory using Schrodinger equation)
• Electrons are arranged in energy levels (shells), an electron in a given place = atomic orbitals
• Atomic orbital – electrons are negatively charged clouds, electrons can be found in 3D shapes = orbitals (max 2 electrons –
repelling). The electrons spin in opposite directions to minimise repulsion, orbital have different energies.
• Principle quantum number is the number given to every energy level (shell), the further the energy level from the nucleus
the closer they get, on every energy level there are sub-shells (s- 1 pair of e-, p- 3 pairs of e-, d- 5 pairs on e-, f) : energy level
1 has only an s orbital, energy level 2 has one s orbital and three p orbital, energy level 3 has one s orbital, three p orbital
and five d orbitals…
• Sub-shells – 1 e- is written 1, 10 e- is written ……..
• Electron configurations of ions – isoelectronic particles = have the same electronic configurations
• Ionisation energies – energy is needed to overcome the attraction between the electrons and the positive nucleus to
remove an electron. Removing electrons = ionisation
• First ionisation energy = energy required to remove one mole of e- from one mole of gaseous atoms to form one mole of
gaseous 1+ ions.
• Equation: X(g)  X+(g) + e- ; with H (change in energy) = +Y J (change in energy is positive because its an endothermic
reaction = takes in heat)
• Factors affecting ionisation energies: Nuclear charge= more electrons removed means more protons which makes the e- left
have a bigger attraction; Distance between nucleus= attraction falls with distance so the more energy levels the less
attraction; Shielding= the more energy levels, the more electrons between the last electron and the nucleus which makes it
have less attraction to the nucleus.
• High ionisation energy= high attraction between electron and nucleus and more energy will be needed to remove the e-.
• A big/irregular change in energy on the graph = next energy level
• On the Y axis there is log of ionisation because of the large energy changes, the general increase in ionisation energies is
because of the increase in proton to electron ratio because more electrons are being removed = effective nuclear charge.
 • Trends in first ionisation energy: as you go down a group, the energy decreases; across a period, the energy usually
increases;
• Ionisation energy decreases down Group 2: Atomic radius = as you go down a group, there are more energy levels so the
outer electrons get further from the nucleus – less attraction which makes it easier to remove electrons – less energy
needed. Electron shielding = more electrons in between the nucleus and the outermost electron. Nuclear charge = more
protons means more attraction but other two factors work against it.
• Ionisation energy increases across a period: increase in nuclear charge bc of the additional protons and decrease in atomic
radius bc no increase in energy levels but increase in protons makes the increased charge increase in attraction.
• Group 3 and Group 6 energies make a dip: proves existence of sub-shells; when Group 3 electrons are divided into their sub-
shells, the 3 electron has additional shielding from the 3s electrons. When Group 6 electrons are divided into their sub-
shells, they always end with a pair of electrons which repel making it easier to remove that electron which is repelling its
pair.
 Amount of substance
• 1 mole of carbon contains 6.02 x
• Number of particles = moles x Avogadro's constant
• Moles =
• Concentration of solution measured in (mol d) Moles = concentration x volume ( d) / 1000
• Diatomic molecules: halogens, , ,
• Molecular ions: Hydroxide - Sulphate - , Nitrate - , Carbonate - , Ammonium - , Phosphate -
• Empirical formula – the simplest ratio of elements in a compound – could sometimes be the molecular formula
• When writing formulas of ionic compounds look at elements group on periodic table to look for how many electrons the
element would lose or gain to become stable – an ion and then at the other element and try make the ratios work.
• To find the empirical formula of any compound: find and write the relative atomic masses of each of the element involved,
assume there are 100g so their RAM is their mass, then find moles using n = mass/Mr; divide all by the smallest mole value.
• Moles = num of particles/avos constant
• Atom economy - a measure of the proportion of products in a reaction that are useful(percentage)
• Atom economy = mass of wanted product from equation / total mass of products in equation * 100
• Percentage yield – actual yield is always lower than theoretical bc : reaction might not go to completion, left behind some
product, mechanical transfer, side reactions
• Percentage yield = actual / theoretical * 100
• Ideal gas equation – pV=nRT (p = pressure in Pa, V = volume in , n = moles, R = gas constant – 8.31 in , T = temp in kelvin -
25°C = 298k, 0°C = 273k)
• Ionic equations – only separate the compounds that are not solids or ions which do not take part in the reaction – spectator
ions
• Back titrations:
• Degree of hydration – same as empirical formula
Bonding
Ionic bonding:
• Ions in ionic compounds - lose an electron (metals) = positively charged - cations; gain an electron (non-metals) = negatively
charged - anions.
• Ionic bond is the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions
• Ionic lattices: solid ionic compounds form lattices – ions held in regular, repeated 3D arrangement (NaCl = 6:6 configuration/
cubic arrangement)
• Lattices have high m.p and b.p bc of strong electrostatic attraction between ions; their regular pattern of lattices give ionic
compounds a crystalline structure – NaCl as it heats up, cracking sound of crystal breaking is heard = decrepitation
• Physical properties: ionic compounds have high m.p or b.p and are solid at room temp: The smaller the ionic radius and the
higher the charge on the ions, the stronger the ionic bonds; positive ions = smaller than their atoms, negative ions = larger
than their atoms.
• Ionic compounds are usually soluble in H2O: bc water molecules are polar, they are attracted to charged particles – they
knock ions off the lattice and surround them; aluminium oxide is an example of an ionic compound that its lattice will not
break bc of strong electrostatic attraction – insoluble
• The only conduct electricity when molten or in aqueous solution: electricity is the flow of charge – for charge to flow, it must
be aqueous or liquid.
• Sulphate - SO42-
• Nitrate - NO3-
• Hydroxide - OH-
• Carbonate - CO32-
• Hydrogen carbonate - HCO3-
• Ammonium - NH4+
Covalent bonding:
• Covalent – share electrons to complete outer shell and stabilise
• Found in simple molecules, macromolecules, molecular ions.
• Atoms use unpaired electrons in orbitals to form covalent bonds
• Physical properties: low m.p and b.p – involves breaking intermolecular forces, not covalent bonds; solid, liquid or gas at room
temp; doesn’t conduct electricity; soluble in water depending on polarisation of molecule.
• Card 1. + 2. + 3. shapes and drawing molecules:
• Co-ordinate bonds or dative covalent bonds happen when the electrons from the lone pair form a bond with another atom
that has an empty orbital. The electrons are donated to the empty orbital on the other atom to form the co-ordinate bond.
Co-ordinate bond = covalent bond with both electrons supplied by one atom. Diagram is presented by ion: Card 4.
Metallic bonding
• Metallic structure = lattice of positive ions in a sea of delocalised electrons
• Metallic bond = electrostatic attraction between delocalised sea of electrons and the lattice of positive metal ions.
• Physical properties: conduct electricity; conduct heat; ductile ( able to draw out into thin wires) and malleable (able do shape
or bend) bc rows of ions with delocalised electrons could ‘slide off’; high density; high m.p;
Molecular covalent crystalline substance
• Molecular: exist is discreet molecules – small; mostly liquid or gases or low temp solids at room temp;
• Macromolecular: some covalent substances form crystalline structures – molecular covalent crystals
• Examples: iodine – large iodine molecules pack together in a regular arrangement that gives solid iodine a crystalline
structure; iodine is non-polar, non-ionic, bc it has many electrons, intermolecular forces of attraction increase allowing it to
form a crystalline structure. Ice – intermolecular forces; crystallises bc of its polarity; molecule lines up in a regular
arrangement making a lattice with no covalent bonds between molecules.
• Physical properties: intermolecular forces between molecules = not very strong therefore low m.p and brittle; do not conduct
electricity bc no charged particles free to move;
Macromolecular structures
• Some non-metallic elements form giant covalent/macromolecular compounds which include allotropes of carbon, diamond and
graphite.
• Diamond: hardest naturally occurring substance; high m.p of 3550°C bc of strong covalent bonds; each carbon is covalently
bonded to 4 other carbons – tetrahedral 109.5; doesn’t conduct electricity or heat bc no charged particles;
• Graphite: high m.p 3600°C bc of strong covalent bonds; each carbon is bonded to 3 other carbons in a hexagonal arrangement –
form flat layers; layers are held together by weak forces of attraction – can easily slide over – giving graphite a flaky consistency
– good for pencil and lubricant; bc carbon has 4 unpaired electrons and only 3 are bonded covalently, 1 electron for each carbon
is free to move = conducts electricity;
States of matter
• Melting; freezing; boiling; condensing; subliming;
Bond polarity
• Electrons in covalent bond move around bonded orbitals, if molecule symmetrical, electrons move evenly;
• Electrons are not always evenly distributed – can be closer to one atom than the other = polar bond
• Atoms which electrons are closer to will be more negatively charged - 𝛅-
• Atoms which electrons are further away from will be more positively charged - 𝛅+
Electronegativity
• Ability of an atom to attract a pair of electrons in a covalent bond towards it = electronegativity
• Electrons move closer to more electronegative atom
• Most electronegative element = fluorine; least electronegative element = caesium
• Pauling electronegativity scale = shows elements relative electronegativity
• Electronegativity depends on: atomic radius; size of nuclear charge; electron shielding
• electronegativity increases across a period and decreases down a group
Predicting type of bonding in a compound
• No difference = non-polar covalent bond; small difference = polar covalent molecule; large difference = ionic bond.
Polarity
• Covalent bonds with an uneven distribution of electrons = polar
• Whole molecules can also be polar or non-polar – water has 2 polar O-H bonds – polar molecule
• Some molecules have polar bonds but overall are not polar
• Carbon dioxide has to polar C=O bonds but its symmetrical so bond polarities are cancelled out
Intermolecular forces
• Attractive forces between covalent molecules
• Induced dipole-dipole forces / van-der-Waals’ forces; Permanent dipole-dipole forces; Hydrogen bonds
• Induced dipole-dipole forces / van-der-Waals’: other names – London forces; intermolecular forces caused by temporary or
constantly shifting dipoles; all atoms in molecules have electrons rapidly moving around the nuclei; at any one moment the
electrons could be pulled more to one side creating a temporary dipole; they constantly form and disappear on different sides
of the molecule regardless if its polar or not; the larger the molecule the more electrons it has – more van der Waals forces
between them;
• Evidence of van der Waals’: halogens = non-polar diatomic molecules, as you go down the group m.p and b.p increases, the
increase in Mr = increase in van der Waals’ forces between molecules; increase in atomic radius = increase in number of
electrons = more van der Waals’
• Permanent dipole-dipole forces: polar molecules with permanent dipole-dipole attract other molecules; polar molecules are
held together by permanent dipole-dipole forces and also van der Waals’;
• Hydrogen bonds: occur between delta+ H covalently bonded to O/N/F and to a delta- O/N/F of another molecule; have about
1/10th strength of covalent bond;
• Water: when drawing remember delta signs and dashed lines representing H bonds and lone pair of electrons of delta- atom;
water has higher than expected b.p due to H bonds – more energy needed to separate molecules
to the gaseous state; water = fluid hexagonal structure bc of hydro bonds; ice is less dense bc as
water freezes, hydro bonds hold water in a molecular crystalline structure.
Organic Chemistry
• The study of millions of covalent compounds of carbon; these compounds vary from petroleum fuels to DNA and molecules in
living systems; used as drugs, medicines, plastics;
• Organic compounds are named using IUPAC
• Carbon: forms 4 covalent bonds; carbon + hydrogen = hydrocarbons;
• Functional group: a group of atoms responsible for the characteristic reactions of a compound.
• Homologous series: all molecules that contain the same functional group belong to the same homologous series. All members
of a series: have the same general formula, show a pattern in physical properties, have the same functional group, differ from
successive members by CH2 group.
• Formulae of organic compounds: molecular – actual number of atoms of each element in a compound, empirical – simplest
ratio of atoms of each element in a compound, displayed – all atoms, all covalent bonds, structural – arrangement of atoms
carbon by carbon and what's attached to it and brackets for carbons not part of main chain, skeletal – stick diagrams don’t
show C or H but yes side chains, general – represents composition of any member of a homologous series.
Nomenclature
• Naming using standard system by IUPAC
• Step 1: count number of carbons in the longest continuous chain and name it and decide ending – single bond = -ane, double
bond = -ene (Chains that form a ring – cyclo – prefix )
• Step 2: identify side chains and add before main name in alphabetical order
• Step 3: find locant of side chain and give it a number
• Note: also necessary to number double bonds
Naming with functional groups
• Instead of ene or ane suffix, functional group suffix
Isomerism
• Structural isomerism – compounds with the same formula but different structural formula
• 3 types: chain, positional, functional group
• Chain isomerism: different ways of arranging carbon atoms in the longest chain; similar chemical properties but different physical
properties; the more branched the chain the weaker the van der Waals’ forces and the lower the b.p;
• Positional isomerism: same chain and same functional group but attached to different carbon
• Functional group isomerism: same molecular formula but different functional group
• Stereoisomerism – same molecular and structural formula but arranged differently
• 2 types E-Z: isomers and optical isomers
Alkanes
• main constituent of crude oil; used as fuels, environmental consequences …
• Homologous series of saturated hydrocarbons; CnH2n+2 = general formula;
• Physical properties: b.p increases with number or carbons; short chains = gases at room temp; from 5 -17 carbons – liquid at room
temp; longer chains = waxy solids at room temp; branched alkanes have lower b.p bc less van der Waals’ forces; non-polar tiny
difference in electronegativity; have van der Waals’ forces; insoluble in water but soluble in other non-polar liquids; can be separated
using separating funnel from water; different length alkanes could be separated using fractional distillation;
• Fractional distillation: crude oil = mixture mainly different length alkanes; worlds main source of organic chemicals; takes millions of
years to form from remains of plants and animals; crude oil is heated in furnace until vaporises, fractions are collected at different
levels depending on b.ps;
• Cracking: some fractions are more useful than others, shorter chain alkanes have higher demand therefore the less useful, longer
chain fractions are broken by cracking
• Thermal cracking: long chain alkanes are broken under high pressure and temps = temp =1200K, pressure = 70atm, for 1 sec to avoid
complete decomposition; product = shorter chain alkanes and alkenes;
• Catalytic cracking: catalyst = zeolite; zeolite = acidic mineral made of aluminium oxide and silicon dioxide; honeycomb structure =
large surface area = increase in rate of reaction; happens at temp of 1000K + low pressure of 1-2atm; products = branched alkanes,
cycloalkanes, aromatic compounds – used for fuels.
Combustion of alkanes
• Combustion of methane: CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
• Combustion of butane: C4H10(g) + 6½O2(g) → 4CO2(g) + 5H2O(g)
• These are referred to as complete combustion
• Incomplete combustion: when there is a limited supply of oxygen, carbon monoxide is formed
• CH4(g) + 1½O2(g) → CO(g) + 2H2O(g)
• When even less supply of oxygen, solid carbon/soot/smog forms
• Combustion in an internal combustion engine: cars run on alkane fuelled internal combustion engine; fuel is injected into combustion
chamber with excess air; mixture is ignited under high pressure and temp; energy released in combustion pushes piston down; products of
combustion exit via exhaust pipe;
• Products of combustion of car engines: unwanted reactions take place bc of high temp and pressure during combustion; nitrogen usually
unreactive, here nitrogen oxides are produced; also carbon monoxide; hydrocarbons; particles; sulphur dioxide; hydrocarbons and
nitrogen oxides react and form ground level ozone;
• Environmental consequences: global warming, acid rain, photochemical smog,
• Global warming: gases in the atmosphere cause the radiation from the sun to bounce back – keeping the world warm and sustaining life =
greenhouse effect; surface temp of earth increasing = global warming; due to greenhouse gases – carbon dioxide, methane, water vapour;
• Acid rain: normal rain has pH of 5.5, acid rain has lower pH bc of sulphur dioxide reacting w water to form sulfuric acid; destroys crops and
trees, kills fish, damages buildings: SO2(g) + H2O(g) + ½O2(g) → H2SO4(aq)
• Photochemical smog: formed when unburned fuels mix with carbon particulates; can cause health problems such as lung disease and eye
irritation;
• Catalytic converters: fitted to exhaust pipes; contain honeycomb structure covered with platinum or rhodium; the gas leaves engine,
passes through the structure and catalyses reaction between unburnt hydrocarbons and NO gases converting them into less toxic gases;
2NO(g) + 2CO(g) → 2CO2(g) + N2(g)
• Removing sulphur: most sulphur removed b4 fuels use in cars but not power stations therefore flue gas desulphurisation used; gases from
combustion are passed through a slurry of calcium carbonate/oxide, these bases neutralise sulphur dioxide forming calcium sulphite, then
oxidised making calcium sulphate – used in construction; SO2(g) + CaCO3(s) → CaSO3(s) + CO2(g) :
SO2(g) + CaO3(s) → CaSO3(s) : CaSO3(s) + [O] → CaSO4(s)
Halogenoalkanes
• Much more reactive than alkanes; uses = refrigerants, solvents and pharmaceuticals; use can be restricted due to effect of
chlorofluorocarbons on the atmosphere.
• Synthesis of halogenoalkanes: chlorine reacts with methane in the presence of UV light to form chloroalkanes and hydrogen
chloride gases; CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl; one of the H in methane has been replaced by Cl = substitution reaction; here free
radical substitution; these are reaction mechanisms; products = halogenoalkanes and longer chain alkanes; can be separated
by fractional distillation;
• Free radical substitution: on Card 5.; halogen molecules absorb energy from UV light; homolytic fission = covalent bond of
diatomic molecule breaks symmetrically – 1 electron to each atom; each atom then has free unpaired electron in outer shell =
free radical – extremely reactive;
• Ozone layer: allotrope of oxygen - O3; most abundant in layer of the stratosphere 10-50km up; essential for absorbing UV;
ozone is depleting due to reactions between ozone and chlorine free radicals; chlorine free radicals produced from homolyses
of C-Cl bond in CFCs when exposed to UV light; CFCs used as solvents, flame-retardants; propellants and refrigerants – now
restricted! Card 6.
• Physical properties: contain functional group C-X; general formula = CnH2n+1 X; C-X bond is polar bc more electronegative than
C; halogenoalkanes are insoluble/slightly soluble in water, soluble in organic solvents – dry cleaning fluids and degreasing
agents;
• Boiling points: 2 intermolecular forces – van der Waals’ + permanent dipole-dipole forces; as chain length increases, b.p
increases, bc the bigger the molecule, the more van der Waals’; polarity decreases down group 7 so we would assume b.p
decreases but van der Waals’ increase therefore overcoming force – higher b.p;
• Nucleophiles: electron pair donors; denoted w : double dot; attracted to positively charged entities;
• Nucleophilic substitution: reaction mechanisms = curly arrows; Card 7. + 8.
• Elimination reaction: OH ions dissolved in ethanol, - OH ions act as base to accept proton to form water; haloalkane lose a H
atom and halogen to form an alkene; Card 8.
Alkenes
• High-electron density of C=C double bond – attracts electrophiles
• Unsaturated alkanes – at least one double bond
• General formula: CnH2n
• E-Z isomerism: type of stereoisomerism – same molecular formula and structural formula but different 3D arrangement of
atoms; double bonds – planar, have restricted rotations; Z – groups are on the ‘Zame’ side, different carbons; E – groups on
opposite sides of double bond.
• Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority rules: when groups on molecule are different – priority rules; groups are ranked by highest
atomic mass; if highest ranked are on the same side = Z, if on the opposite = E;
• Synthesis of alkenes: formed by elimination reactions w halogenoalkanes – condition of excess ethanol; also by dehydration
reaction of alcohols; alcohols are dehydrated using sulphuric acid as catalyst at temp of 170°;
• Reactions of alkenes: high density C=C bonds attract electrophiles – electron acceptors; polar molecules like HBr are
electrophiles, delta +ve H attracted to high electron density in double bonds; react in electrophilic addition
• Electrophilic addition mechanism: Card 9.
• Test for unsaturation: bromine water = orange, added to test, if alkene present bromine water will become clear;
• Addition polymers: alkenes react to form polymers – plastics, reaction = addition polymerisation; named using alkene and
prefix ‘poly’; poly(ethene) = many ethenes together; poly(propene) = may propenes; poly(chloroethene) = many
chloroethenes = PVC; poly(phenylethane) = polystyrene;
• Production and uses of polymers: used as packaging, containers and insulators; plastic bags, wellington boots, pipes.
Alcohols
• Physical properties: greater boiling point than alkanes w same molecular mass – bc of van der waals as well as hydro bonds =
stronger. Short chain alcohols are soluble in water.
• Primary alcohol = OH on carbon w 1 R grp, secondary alcohol = OH on carbon w 2 R grps, tertiary alcohol = OH on carbon w 3
R grps.
• Ethanol could be used as biofuel. Made in fermentation process, commonly referred to as alcohol
• Alcohols are a homologous series; functional group –OH; general formula CnH2n+1OH
• Ethanol could be produced in 2 ways: Hydration of ethene or fermentation of carbohydrates.
• Hydration of ethene: overall equation - C2H4 + H2O(g) ⇌ C2H5OH; conditions: catalyst – concentrated phosphoric acid absorbed
on solid silica surface, 60atm of pressure, 600K temp, excess ethene for high yield; Card 10 it’s a faster process and the
products are purer as well as cheaper bc of continuous process but its expensive as high tech must be used and the high
pressure as well. Ethene is not renewable.
• Fermentation: overall equation - C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 ; this process is anaerobic respiration of micro-organisms;
conditions: presence of yeast, absence of oxygen so that no ethanoic acid made, temp of 35°C – lower temp = slow, higher
temp = denature enzymes; ethanol is produced as a neutral aqueous solution. Ethanol produced is used in alcoholic drinks, it
is removed by fractional distillation to be used as a biofuel, Bioethanol made from fermentation of sugar beet. Biofuel is any
fuel made from living organisms or their waste.
• Comparing processes: fermentation = batch – inefficient, slow, ethanol produced is impure and required further processing,
uses gentle temp and atm pressure, uses renewable resources - plant material. Hydration = continues flowing process – more
efficient, very fast, purer ethanol produce, uses high temps and atm pressure, lots energy input needed, uses finite resources
– crude oil.
• Carbon-neutral activity – is one in which there is no net annual emissions of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
• Oxidation reactions of alcohols: primary alcohols oxidised to produce aldehydes, and further to produce carboxylic acids;
secondary alcohols oxidised to produce ketones – cant be oxidised further, tertiary alcohols cant be oxidised. Card 10.
• Carbonyl compounds: aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids are part of this homologous series, they contain C=O bond -
carbonyl group.
• Aldehydes: carbonyl group at the end of carbon chain, named using suffix –al.
• Ketones: carbonyl group could be anywhere, just not at the end, named with suffix –one, unless molecule symmetrical
number the functional group position.
• Carboxylic acid: COOH group at the end of carbon chain, named with suffix –oic acid.
• Oxidation of primary alcohols: easily oxidised, produce aldehyde/carboxylic acid, agent- acidified potassium dichromate; Cr2O72
orange aqueous solution reduced to green chromium (III) Cr3+ as alcohol oxidised sulphuric acid added. As its oxidised, alcohol
loses 2 H atoms – one from –OH and one from saturated carbon; oxygen reacts with 2H to make H2O. Card 11. to stop
aldehyde from oxidising further, alcohol must be in excess, product must be distilled immediately. To further oxidise, agent
must be in excess, and mixture must be under gentle reflux, product removed by distillation.
• Oxidation of secondary alcohols: alcohol is refluxed gently with excess agent – same agent as previous.
• Tests: Fehling’s solution = contains copper (II) – blue, mild oxidising agent, when warmed w aldehyde it oxidises to a carboxylic
acid, copper is reduced – copper (I) oxide – orange-red precipitate. Cu2+ + e- → Cu+ Fehlings’ solution is made of 2 solutions:
copper (II) ions as aqueous copper sulphate; sodium hydroxide solution. Ketones are not oxidised = no colour change. Tollens’
reagent = silver mirror test, colourless silver solution of silver nitrate in dilute ammonia, contains complex ion [Ag(NH3)2]+, mild
oxidising agent. When warmed w an aldehyde, aldehyde is oxidised to carboxylic acid. Silver ions get reduced and silver atoms
are deposited on side of tube appear like a silver mirror. Ag+(aq) + e- → Ag(s).