A Guide to Research Papers

Working with Sources

 The amount of source material you use

depends on the topic, audience and purpose.
 A source should not substitute for a point you
are making; it should help convey and
support a point.
Reasons for including references
to source material
 They give background information to help the
readers understand your ideas;
 They provide examples and other details to
support a point you are making or to counter an
argument;
 They enhance your credibility by providing
evidence for specialists in your subject area,
demonstrating that you are aware of previous
thinking about your topic;
 They indicate to your reader where to find
further information about your subject.
Types of Sources

 PRIMARY SOURCES  SECONDARY SOURCES

 Firsthand, original  Materials (books, journal
materials (eyewitness articles, encyclopedia
accounts of events, entries, reviews of books)
historical documents, that describe, analyze or
letters, speeches, TV comment on primary
shows, movies, sources.
photographs), original
research (interviews,
surveys, reports of
experiments).
Types of Sources (2)

 PRINT SOURCES: books and periodicals

(professional journals, popular magazines,
newspapers)
 ELECTRONIC SOURCES: Internet and CD-ROM
 MEDIA SOURCES: television, radio, film, sound
recordings
 GRAPHIC SOURCES: drawings, photographs,
maps, cartoons, tables, graphs, charts
 FIELD SOURCES: interviews, surveys, personal
observation.
Locating Secondary Sources

 LIBRARY SOURCES
 Use the electronic catalogue and databases
(online collections of information)
 Locate relevant, reliable sources (books, articles in
newspapers, magazines and academic journals).
 INTERNET RESOURCES
 World Wide Web
 E-mail
 Listservs and newsgroups
Evaluating Sources

 RELEVANCE
 How closely related is the source to the focus of
the topic?
 Is the source too general or too specialized for the
topic, purpose or audience of your paper?
 RELIABILITY
 How accurate, complete and unbiased is the
source information?
 Does the source present opposing viewpoints and
do so in a fair manner?
Evaluating Sources
 CURRENCY
 How recent is the information in the source and is there any
indication of how often the information is updated?
 If you are using a relatively old source, is it still relevant to your
research?
 AUTHORSHIP
 Who is the author of the source and what are his/her
qualifications for writing about the subject?
 Is the author associated with a special-interest group that might
compromise his/her objectivity?
 PURPOSE AND AUDIENCE
 What is the purpose of the source – to inform, persuade or
entertain the audience?
 Who is the intended audience for the source and what are the
attitudes, expectations and preconceptions of this group?
Documenting Sources

 The origin of all information, ideas, opinions

and judgments in your paper must be cited or
acknowledged properly.
 The only exception is common knowledge –
information, such as a fact, that is well known
or found in a number of sources.
 It is wiser to document too much rather than
risk being guilty of plagiarism.
Acts of Plagiarism

 Failing to cite quotations and borrowed ideas;

 Failing to enclose borrowed language in
quotation marks;
 Failing to put summaries and paraphrases in
your own words;
 Copying a text and passing it as your own.
Keeping a Working Bibliography –
information to record
BOOK ARTICLE WEB SITE
• name of author(s) or •Name of author(s) •Name of author(s)
editor(s) •Title of article •Title of document
•Title of book •Name of publication •Name of Web site
•Place of publication •Volume and issue •Date of publication or
•Name of publisher number of publication last update
•Year of publication •Date of publication •Page, paragraph or
•Volume, edition and •Page numbers on which section number(s)
translator’s name (if article appears •Editor or sponsoring
relevant) organization of site
•Date on which Web site
was accessed
•Full electronic address,
or URL
Selecting a Documentation
Style
 MLA (Modern Language Association) – used
widely in humanities;
 APA (American Psychological Association) –
used mainly in social sciences.
 Both styles cite sources within the text of the paper on
parentheses (in-text citations) and list these sources
alphabetically by the authors’ last names at the end of
the paper.
 CMS (Chicago Manual of Style) – used by
historians and by scholars in the humanities
 AMA (American Management Association) – in
business
MLA and APA in-text citations
 Both styles use citations in the text of the paper that
refer to a list of works at the end of the paper.
 MLA in-text citation:
 Brandon Conran argues that the story is written from a
“bifocal point of view” (111)
 APA in-test citation:
 As researchers Yanovski and Yanovski (2002) have explained,
depression was once considered “either a moral failing or
evidence of underlying psychopathology” (p. 592).
 BASIC DISCIPLINARY DIFFERENCES appear in these
key elements:
 Author’s name
 Date of publication
 Page numbers
 Verb tense in signal phrases
MLA and APA in-text citations

 MLA style
 gives the author’s full name on first mention;
 includes page numbers for quotations, summaries and
paraphrases;
 uses the present tense to introduce cited material (e.g. Brandon
Conran argues…)
 APA style
 usually uses last names only;
 gives a date after the author’s name;
 includes page numbers for quotations and only recommends that
writers use a page number if doing so would help readers find the
passage in a longer work;
 Uses the past or present perfect tense to introduce cited material
(e.g. Yanovski and Yanovski have explained/argued…)
CMS footnotes and endnotes
 Even if a text is thick with citations, readers will not be
overwhelmed. In the text of the paper only a raised
number appears, so that readers who are interested can
consult the accompanying numbered note, which is given
either at the foot of the page (footnote) or at the end of the
paper (endnote).
 E.g. Text
 Historian Albert Castel quotes several eyewitnesses on both
the Union and the Confederate sides as saying that Forrest
ordered his men to stop firing.7
 Note
7. Albert Castel, “The Fort Pillow Massacre: A Fresh
Examination of the Evidence,” Civil War History 4, no. 1
(1958): 44 – 45.
Final List

 MLA – Works Cited

 APA – Reference List
 CMS – Bibliography
APA Papers

 QUOTATIONS and BORROWED IDEAS

 The source is introduced by a signal phrase that
includes the last names of the authors followed by
the date of publication in parentheses.
 The material being cited is followed by a page
number in parentheses.
APA Citation Style
 Journal article
 Lipson, C. (1991). Why are some international
agreements informal? International Organization, 45,
495 – 538.
 A chapter in an edited book
 Lipson, C. (1994). Is the future of collective security
like the past? In G. Downs (Ed.), Collective security
beyond the cold war (pp. 105 – 131). Ann Arbor:
University of Michigan Press.
 A book
 Lipson, C. (2003). Reliable partners: How democracies
have made a separate peace. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press.
APA Citation Style

 All entries for a single author are arranged by

year of publication, beginning with the earliest.
 Two entries for a particular year, they would be
alphabetized by title and the first would be
labeled with “a” and the second “b”.
 2004 – (2004a) and (2004b)
 TITLES
 Are treated like sentences –> only the first words are
capitalized.
 If there is a colon (:) in the title, the first word after the
colon is capitalized.
APA Citation Style
 Single-author entries precede those with co-authors.
 Pinker, S. (sole author)
 Pinker, S., & Jones, B. (multiple authors).
 Multiple authors are joined by an ampersand (&).
 The authors’ first names are always reduced to
initials.
 Pagination is compulsory only for in-text citations of
direct quotes, pages being preceded by “p.” or “pp.”
(for multiple pages). In in-text references do not
need pagination.
 Therefore, in-text citations include:
 The author(s)’ name
 Year of publication
 If the sentence includes the author’s name, the citation omits
it, only the year of the publication being mentioned.
 Nye (2004) presents considerable data to back up his claims.
BOOK (one author)

 REFERENCE LIST
Lundy, C. (2003). Social work and social justice: A
structural approach to practice. Peterborough, ON:
Broadview Press.
 IN-TEXT
(Lundy, 2003)
BOOKS (several by the same
author)
 REFERENCE LIST
Elster, J. (1989a). The cement of society: A study of social order.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Elster, J. (1989b). Nuts and bolts for the social sciences.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Elster, J. (1989c). Solomonic judgements: Studies in the
limitations of rationality. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press; Paris: Editions de la Maison des sciences de
l’homme.
Elster, J., & Moene, K.O. (Eds.). (1989). Alternatives to
capitalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 IN-TEXT
(Elster, 1989a, 1989b, 1989c; Elster & Moene, 1989)
BOOK (multiple authors)
 REFERENCE LIST
Reiter, D., & Stam, A. C. (2002). Democracies at
war. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
 IN-TEXT
(Reiter & Stam, 2002)
2-5 authors: name all authors in the first
citation, from the 2nd citation
onwards, name only the first
author then add “et al.”.
6 and more authors: name only the first author
then add “et al.” for all citations.
BOOK (multiple editions)

 REFERENCE LIST
Strunk, W., Jr., & White, E. B. (2000). The
elements of style (4th ed.). New York:
Longman.
 IN-TEXT
(Strunk & White, 2000)
BOOK (multiple editions, no
author)
 REFERENCE LIST
 National Partnership for Immunization reference
guide (2nd ed.). (2003). Alexandria, VA: National
Partnership for Immunization.
 Title (ed.). (year). City, STATE: Publisher.
 IN-TEXT
(National Partnership for Immunization [NPI],
2003)
For subsequent references: (NPI, 2003)
BOOK (edited)

 REFERENCE LIST
Shweder, R.A., Minow, M., & Markus, H. (Eds.).
(2002). Engaging cultural differences: The
multicultural challenge in liberal democracies.
New York: Russell Sage Foundation Press.
 IN-TEXT
(Shweder, Minow & Markus, 2002)
BOOK (online)

 REFERENCE LIST
Reed, J. (1922). Ten days that shook the world.
Project Gutenberg. E-text 3076. Retrieved
January 12, 2004, from
ftp://ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/etext
02/10daz10.txt
APA does not put a period after the URL, making it
different from most other reference styles.
 IN-TEXT
(Reed, 1922)
Multivolume work

 REFERENCE LIST
Pflanze, O. (1963 – 1990). Bismarck and the
development of Germany (Vols. 1 – 3).
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
 IN-TEXT
(Pflanze, 1963 – 1990)
Translated volume

 REFERENCE LIST
Weber, M. (1958). The Protestant ethic and the
spirit of capitalism. T. Parsons (Trans.). New
York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. (Original work
published 1904 – 1905)

 IN-TEXT
(Weber, 1904 – 1905/1958)
Chapter in edited book

 REFERENCE LIST
Keohane, R. (1983). The demand for
international regimes. In S. Krasner (Ed.),
International regimes (pp. 56 – 67). Ithaca, NY:
Cornell University Press.
 IN-TEXT
(Keohane, 1983)
JOURNAL ARTICLE (one
author)
 REFERENCE LIST
Lipson, C. (1991). Why are some international
agreements informal? International
organization, 45, 495 – 538.
 IN-TEXT
(Lipson, 1991)
JOURNAL ARTICLE (multiple
authors)
 REFERENCE LIST
Koremenos, B., Lipson, C., & Snidal, D. (2001). The
rational design of international institutions.
International Organization, 55, 761 – 799.
Hansen, S. S., Munk-Jorgensen, P., Guldbaek, B.,
Solgard, T., Lauszus, K., Albrechtsen, N., et al.
(2000). Psychoactive substance use diagnoses
among psychiatric in-patients. Acta Psychiatrica
Scandinavica, 102, 432 – 438.
 IN-TEXT
(Koremenos, Lipson, & Snidal, 2001) – 1st reference
(Koremenos et al., 2001) – 2nd reference
JOURNAL ARTICLE (online)

 REFERENCE LIST
Conway. P. (2003). Truth and reconciliation:
The road not taken in Namibia. Online Journal
of Peace and Conflict Resolution, 5(1).
Retrieved December 26, 2003, from
http://www.trinstitute.org/ojpcr/5_1conway.h
tm
 IN-TEXT
(Conway, 2003)
JOURNAL ARTICLE (foreign
language)
 REFERENCE LIST
Maignan, I., & Swaen, V. (2004). La
responsabilité sociale d’une organisation:
Intégration des perspectives marketing et
managériale [The social responsibility of an
organization: Integration of marketing and
managerial perspectives]. Revue Française du
Marketing, 200, 51 – 66.
 IN-TEXT
(Maignan & Swaen, 2004)
NEWSPAPER or MAGAZINE ARTICLE (no
author)
 REFERENCE LIST
The United States and the Americas: One history in
two halves. (2003, December 13). Economist, 36.
Strong aftershocks continue in California. (2003,
December 26). New York Times [national ed.], p.
A23.
 Newspaper page numbers include “p.” or “pp.”
 IN-TEXT
(United States and the Americas, 2003)
(Strong aftershocks, 2003)
NEWSPAPER or MAGAZINE ARTICLE
(with author)
 REFERENCE LIST
Bruni, F. (2003, December 26). Pope pleads for
end to terrorism and war. New York Times
[national ed.], p. A21.
 IN-TEXT
(Bruni, 2003) or (Bruni, 2003, December 26)
NEWSPAPER or MAGAZINE ARTICLE
(online)
 REFERENCE LIST
Vick, K. (2003, December 27). Quake in Iran kills
at least 5,000: Temblor devastates ancient
city; officials appeal for assistance.
Washington Post [online], p. A01. Retrieved
January 2, 2004, from
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-
dyn/articles/A31539-2003Dec27.html
 IN-TEXT
(Vick, 2003) or (Vick, 2003, December 27)
UNPUBLISHED PAPER, DISSERTATION,
THESIS
 REFERENCE LIST
Tsyganov, A. (2004, February). Russia’s identity and foreign policy
choices. Paper presented at the Program on International Politics,
Economics, and Security, University of Chicago.
Reid, P. (1998). Beginning therapists and difficult clients: An
exploratory study. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of
Massachusetts, Amherst.
Gomez, C. (2003). Identifying early indicators for autism in self-
regulatory difficulties. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Auburn
University, AL.
 IN-TEXT
(Tsyganov, 2004)
(Reid, 1998)
Gomez, 2003)
ENCYCLOPEDIA (hard copy and
online)
 REFERENCE LIST
Balkans: History. (1987). In Encyclopaedia
Britannica (15th ed., Vol. 14, pp. 570 – 588).
Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Balkans. (2003). Encyclopaedia Britannica [online].
Retrieved December 28, 2003, from http://
search.eb.com/eb/article?eu=119645
 IN-TEXT
(Balkans: History, 1987)
(Balkans, 2003)
DICTIONARY (hard copy, online and
CD-ROM)
 REFERENCE LIST
Protest, v. (2003). Merriam-Webster’s collegiate dictionary (11th
ed.). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.
Protest, v. (1971). Compact edition of the Oxford English
Dictionary (Vol. 2, p. 2335). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Protest, v. (2003). Dictionary.com. Retrieved January 4, 2004,
from http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=protest
Protest, v. (2000). American heritage dictionary of the English
language (4th ed.). CD-ROM. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
 IN-TEXT
(Protest, 2003)
(Protest, 1971)
(Protest, 2000)
TELEVISION PROGRAM

 REFERENCE LIST
Long, R. (Writer), & Moore, S. D. (Director).
(2002). Bart vs. Lisa vs. 3rd Grade [Television
series episode]. In B. Oakley & J. Weinstein
(Producers), The Simpsons. Episode: 1403
F55079. Fox
 IN-TEXT
(Simpsons, 2002) or (Bart vs. Lisa, 2002)
FILM

 REFERENCE LIST
Houston, J. (Director/Writer). (1941). The Maltese falcon
[Motion picture]. Perf. Humphrey Bogart, Mary
Astor, Peter Lorre, Sydney Greenstreet, Elisha Cook
Jr. Based on novel by Dashiell Hammett. Warner
Studios. U.S.: Warner Home Video, DVD (2000).
 REQUIRED: the title, director, studio and year released.
 OPTIONAL: the actors, producers, screenwriters, editors
and other information that is necessary for the analysis.
These names appear between the title and the distributor.
 IN-TEXT
(Maltese falcon, 1941) or (Maltese falcon, 2000)
DATABASE

 REFERENCE LIST
Bedford, VA, City of. (2004). Property tax
database. Retrieved March 15, 2004, from
http://www.ci.bedford.va.us/proptax/lookup.
shtml
 IN-TEXT
(Bedford, 2004)
WEB PAGE (with author)

 REFERENCE LIST
Lipson, C. (2004). Advice on getting great
recommendation. Retrieved February 1, 2004,
from
http://www.charleslipson.com/courses/Gettin
g-a-good-recommendation.htm
 IN-TEXT
(Lipson, 2004)
WEB PAGE (no author)

 REFERENCE LIST
I Love Lucy: Series summary. (2004). Sitcoms
Online. Retrieved May 4, 2005, from
http://www.sitcomsonline.com/ilovelucy.htm
l
 IN-TEXT
(I Love Lucy: Series summary, 2004)
WEBLOG, ENTRY OR COMMENT

 REFERENCE LIST
Drezner, D. (2004, February 1). Entry post.
Retrieved February 2, 2004, from
http://www.danieldrezner.com/blog/
 IN-TEXT
(Drezner, 2004)
COMMON ABBREVIATIONS IN APA
REFERENCE LISTS
chapter chap. revised edition Rev. ed.
edition ed. second edition 2nd ed.
editor Ed. supplement Suppl.
number No. translated by Trans.
page p. volume Vol.
pages pp. volumes Vols.
part Pt.
SOURCE:

 Lipson, C. (2006). APA citations for the

social sciences, education, engineering,
and business. In Cite right: A quick guide to
citation styles – MLA, APA, Chicago, the
sciences, professions, and more (pp. 73 –
90). Chicago and London: The University
of Chicago Press.