UNIT3ECED

UNIT 3
 Classification of semiconductors
 Describe the electrical properties of semiconductors
and distinguish between p-type and n-type material;
 Explain the formation of a depletion layer at a p-n
junction;
 Discuss the flow of current when the p-n junction
diode is forward-biased or reverse-biased;
 Discuss the I-V characteristic of the p-n junction
diode.
 Effect of temperature and break down in PN junction
diode
 Zener diode and its characteristics.
 In the modern world no other technology
permeates every nook and cranny of our
existence as does electronics.
 The p-n junction is at the heart of this
technology.
 Most electronics is silicon based, that is, the
devices are made of silicon.
 The physical characteristics of this junction are
responsible for all the electronic wizardry we
have become accustomed to.
 Televisions, radios, stereo equipment,
computers, scanners, electronic control systems
(in cars for example), all these have silicon
based technology as there foundation.
 Semiconductors are materials whose electrical
conductivities are higher than those of insulators
but lower that those of conductors.
 Silicon, Germanium, Gallium, Arsenide, Indium,
Antimonide and cadmium sulphide are some
commonly used semiconductors.
 Semiconductors have negative temperature
coefficients of resistance, i.e. as temperature
increases resistivity deceases.
 A Si atom has 4
electrons in its
outermost shell. In a
piece of Si at low
temp. (near 0 K)
each of these
electrons forms
covalent bonds with
4 other Si atoms
 As the temp. of the semiconductor is
increased, these electrons gain more
energy. Some gain enough energy to break
free of their bonds, and wander through
the piece of material.
 Once an electron moves out of a bond, it
leaves behind a ‘hole’ in that bond

 This hole is positive, and so can attract
nearby electrons which then move out of
their bond etc.
 Thus, as electrons move in one direction,
holes effectively move in the other

direction
Electron moves
to fill hole
As electron moves in one direction hole

effectively moves in other
 NB. This is a difference between
conduction in metals and semiconductors,
in metals conduction is due solely to
movement of electrons, in semiconductors
it is due to movement of negative electrons
and positive holes.
 Forbidden band small
for semiconductors.
 Less energy required
for electron to move
from valence to
conduction band.
 A vacancy (hole)
remains when an
electron leaves the
valence band.
 Hole acts as a
positive charge carrier.
 Both silicon and germanium are tetravalent, i.e.
each has four electrons (valence electrons) in their
outermost shell.
 Both elements crystallize with a diamond-like
structure, i.e. in such a way that each atom in the
crystal is inside a tetrahedron formed by the four
atoms which are closest to it.
 Each atom shares its four valence electrons with
its four immediate neighbours, so that each atom
is involved in four covalent bonds.

At zero Kelvin all of the
four valence electrons of
each atom in the silicon
crystal form part of the
covalent bond with the four
neighboring atoms.
 The valence band is
completely full and the
conduction band
completely empty.
 The semiconductor
behaves as a
 perfect insulator because
there are
 no conducting electrons
present.
 At temperatures above
zero Kelvin some of the
valence electrons are able
to break free from their
bonds to become free
conduction electrons.
 The vacancy that is left
behind is referred to as a
hole. This hole is treated as
a positive carrier of charge.
 Conduction due solely to
thermally
 generated electron-hole
pairs is
 referred to as intrinsic
conduction.
An electron leaves its bond in position 7 (see i)
and occupies the vacancy in position 6 (see ii).
Hence the hole effectively moves from position 6
to position 7.
 A pure or intrinsic conductor has thermally generated
holes and electrons. However these are relatively few
in number.
 An enormous increase in the number of charge
carriers can by achieved by introducing impurities
into the semiconductor in a controlled manner.
 The result is the formation of an extrinsic
semiconductor. This process is referred to as doping.
 There are basically two types of impurities: donor
impurities and acceptor impurities.
 Donor impurities are made up of atoms (arsenic for
example) which have five valence electrons.
 Acceptor impurities are made up of atoms (gallium for
example) which have three valence electrons.
 Arsenic has 5 valence
electrons, however, only
4 of them form part of
covalent bonds. The 5th
electron is then free to
take part in conduction.
 The electrons are said

to be the majority
carriers and the holes
are said to be the
minority carriers.
 Gallium has 3
valence electrons,
however, there are 4
covalent bonds to fill.
The 4th bond therefore
remains vacant
producing a hole.
 The holes are said to

be the majority carriers
and the electrons are
said to be the minority
carriers.
On its own a p-type or n-type semiconductor is
not very useful. However when combined very
useful devices can be made.
The p-n junction can be formed by allowing a p-

type material to diffuse into a n-type region at
high temperatures.
The p-n junction has led to many inventions like

the diode, transistors and integrated circuits.
Free electrons on the n-side and free holes on the p-side can
initially diffuse across the junction. Uncovered charges are
left in the neighbourhood of the junction.
This region is depleted of mobile carriers and is called the

DEPLETION REGION (thickness 0.5 – 1.0 µm).
The diffusion of electrons and holes stop due to
the barrier p.d (p.d across the junction) reaching
some critical value.
The barrier p.d (or the contact potential) depends
on the type of semiconductor, temperature and
doping densities.
At room temperature, typical values of barrier
p.d. are:
Ge ~ 0.2 – 0.4 V
Si ~ 0.6 – 0.8 V
When an external voltage is applied to the P-N
junction making the P side positive with respect to
the N side the diode is said to be forward biased
(F.B).
The barrier p.d. is decreased by the external

applied voltage. The depletion band narrows which
urges majority carriers to flow across the junction.
A F.B. diode has a very low resistance.

When an external voltage is applied to the PN
junction making the P side negative with respect
to the N side the diode is said to be Reverse
Biased (R.B.).
The barrier p.d. increases. The depletion band

widens preventing the movement of majority
carriers across the junction.
A R.B. diode has a very high resistance.

Only thermally generated minority carriers are
urged across the p-n junction. Therefore the
magnitude of the reverse saturation current (or
reverse leakage current) depends on the temperature
of the semiconductor.
When the PN junction is reversed biased the width
of the depletion layer increases, however if the
reverse voltage gets too large a phenomenon known
as diode breakdown occurs.
When the diode is F.B., the current increases
exponentially with voltage except for a small range
close to the origin.
When the diode is R.B., the reverse current is
constant and independent of the applied reverse
bias.
Turn-on or cut-in (threshold) voltage Vγ: for a F.B.
diode it is the voltage when the current increases
appreciably from zero.
It is roughly equal to the barrier p.d.:
For Ge, V γ ~ 0.2 – 0.4 V (at room temp.)
For Si, Vγ ~ 0.6 – 0.8 V (at room temp.)

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UNIT 3

leaves behind a ‘hole’ in that bond

holes effectively move in the other

As electron moves in one direction hole

 The electrons are said

 The holes are said to

The p-n junction can be formed by allowing a p-

The p-n junction has led to many inventions like

This region is depleted of mobile carriers and is called the

The barrier p.d. is decreased by the external

A F.B. diode has a very low resistance.

The barrier p.d. increases. The depletion band

A R.B. diode has a very high resistance.

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