Chapter Three

Signal Processing and Conversion

Dept. of Electrical and Computer Eng.,
AASTU
Addis Ababa
By Biruk T.
 Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)
• An analog signal is a continuous signal that contains time-varying quantities, such as
temperature or speed, with infinite possible values in between. which are directly
measurable quantities.
• An analog signal can be used to measure changes in some physical phenomena such as
light, sound, pressure, or temperature.
• ADC is an electronic integrated circuit which transforms a signal from analog
(continuous) to digital (discrete) form.
• ADC Provides a link between the analog world of transducers and the digital world of
signal processing and data handling.
Examples:
• Thermometer – mercury height rises as
temperature rises
• Car Speedometer – Needle moves farther
right as you accelerate
There are two step Process :-
• Quantizing - breaking down analog value is a set of finite states
• Encoding - assigning a digital word or number to each state and matching it to the input
signal
Quantizing: the number of possible states that the converter can output is: N=2n

The number of possible states that the converter can output is:

Sampling :-
• It is a process of taking a sufficient number of discrete values at point on a waveform
that will define the shape of waveform.
• The more samples you take, the more accurately you will define the waveform.
• It converts analog signal into series of impulses, each representing amplitude of the
signal at given point.
“Real World” Sampled Data Systems Consist of ADCs and DACs
Analog Digital
ADC
Channel DSP Memory
DAC

A m p lit u d e
A n a lo g

D ig it a l
Valu e
time time

ADC SAMPLED AND DAC RECONSTRUCTED

QUANTIZED WAVEFORM WAVEFORM

Nyquist Rule:
 Use a sampling frequency at least twice as high as the maximum frequency in the
signal to avoid aliasing.
f samples  2 f max
 Output Discrete Voltage
Example: Quantizing States Ranges (V)
You have 0-10V signals. Separate them into 0 0.00-1.25
a set of discrete states with 1.25V 1 1.25-2.50
increments. (How did we get 1.25V?) 2 2.50-3.75
The number of possible states that the converter
can output is: 3 3.75-5.00

N=2n 4 5.00-6.25
where n is the number of bits in the AD converter 5 6.25-7.50
Example: For a 3 bit A/D converter, N=23=8. 6 7.50-8.75
Analog quantization size:
7 8.75-10.0
Q=(Vmax-Vmin)/N = (10V – 0V)/8 = 1.25V
 Encoding Output
States
Output Binary Equivalent
• Here we assign the digital value (binary number)
0 000
to each state for the computer to read.
1 001
There are two ways to best improve accuracy of
2 010
A/D conversion:
3 011
• increasing the resolution which improves the
4 100
accuracy in measuring the amplitude of the
analog signal. 5 101
6 110
• increasing the sampling rate which increases the
7 111
maximum frequency that can be measured.
 Resolution (number of discrete values the converter can produce) = Analog Quantization
size
(Q) = Vrange / 2^n, where Vrange is the range of analog voltages which can be represented
limited by signal-to-noise ratio (should be around 6dB)
In example: Q = 1.25V, this is a high resolution. A lower resolution would be if we used a 2-
bit converter, then the resolution would be 10/2^2 = 2.50V.
Types of A/D convertor :-
• Flash ADC
• Dual slope/Counter slope ADC
• Successive Approximation ADC
Flash ADC: series of comparators, each one compares input to a unique reference voltage.
• comparator outputs connect to a priority encoder circuit  produces binary output
Fast – but more expensive :
Single cycle - Uses many Comparators in parallel with different reference voltages

How Flash Works

 As the analog input voltage exceeds the reference voltage at each comparator, the
comparator outputs will sequentially saturate to a high state.
 The priority encoder generates a binary number based on the highest-order active input,
ignoring all other active inputs.
• 2N-1 comparators for N-bits Analog Digital
• Each reference voltage equivalent
to a quantization level
• Encoding logic produces word

Figure: Parallel, simultaneous flash A/D conversion.

Advantages
• Simplest in terms of operational theory, Most
efficient in terms of speed, very fast, limited
only in terms of comparator and gate
propagation delays
Disadvantages
• Lower resolution, Expensive, For each
additional output bit, the number of
comparators is doubled, i.e. for 8 bits, 256
comparators needed
 Integrating or Single & Dual Slope
• Accumulate the input current on a capacitor for a fixed time and then measure the time (T) to
discharge the capacitor at a fixed discharge rate.
1) S1->V1:Integrate the input on the cap. For N clock ticks
2) S1-> -Vref: restart clock (S2->counter) discharge C at know rate(governed by -Vref and R)
3) When the cap. is discharged to 0 voltage, the comparator will stop the counter.

problem --very slow

T  fixed
ch arg e _ held  Q   Idt
0
Discharge time for stopping counter by S2 depends on RC and Q
I  V1 / R  constant
9
Successive Approximation:
continuously convert analog signal to discreet digital signal.
• Assume that
• Vin= 0.6 volts
• Vref=1volts
• Find the digital value of Vin

Divided Vref by 2

Compare Vref /2 with Vin

If Vin is greater than Vref /2 , turn MSB on (1)

If Vin is less than Vref /2 , turn MSB off (0)

Vin =0.6V and V=0.5

• Next Calculate MSB-1 (bit 8)
• Compare Vin=0.6 V to V=Vref/2 + Vref/4= 0.5+0.25 =0.75V
• Since 0.6<0.75, MSB is turned off
• Calculate MSB-2 (bit 7)
• Go back to the last voltage that caused it to be turned on (Bit 9) and add it to V ref/8, and compare
with Vin
• Compare Vin with (0.5+Vref/8)=0.625
• Since 0.6<0.625, MSB is turned off
• Calculate the state of MSB-3 (bit 6)
• Go to the last bit that caused it to be turned on (In this case MSB-1) and add it to V ref/16, and
compare it to Vin
• Compare Vin to V= 0.5 + Vref/16= 0.5625
• Since 0.6>0.5625, MSB-3=1 (turned on)
• This process continues for all the remaining bits.
 ADC example 2. using successive approximation
• Given an analog input signal whose voltage should range from 0 to 15 volts, and an 8-bit
digital encoding, calculate the correct encoding for 5 volts. Then trace the successive-
approximation approach to find the correct encoding.
• Assume M = 2n – 1, a / Vmax = d / M, 5 / 15 = d / (256 - 1), d = 85 or binary
01010101
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Step 1-4: determine bits 0-3
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
½(Vmax – Vmin) = 7.5 volts Vmax = 7.5 volts. 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
½(7.5 + 0) = 3.75 volts, Vmin = 3.75 volts.
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
½(7.5 + 3.75) = 5.63 volts, Vmax = 5.63 volts
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
½(5.63 + 3.75) = 4.69 volts, Vmin = 4.69 volts.
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
½(5.63 + 4.69) = 5.16 volts, Vmax = 5.16 volts.
½(5.16 + 4.69) = 4.93 volts, Vmin = 4.93 volts. 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0

½(5.16 + 4.93) = 5.05 volts, Vmax = 5.05 volts. 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

½(5.05 + 4.93) = 4.99 volts

Constructing SA ADC

Analog State
input machine

Timing
control
Vmax
DAC SAR
Vmin BUF Digital
output

Comparator SAR

SAR: Successive
approximation register
Digital to Analog Converter (DAC)
• Signals are easily stored and transmitted in digital form, but a DAC is
needed for the signal to be recognized by human senses or other non-digital
systems.
• A digital-to-analog converter (DAC or D-to-A) is a device that converts a
digital (usually binary) code signal to an analog signal (current, voltage, or
electric charge).
• Digital signals is a type of signal that can take on a set of discrete values (a
quantized signal)
• It can represent a discrete set of values using any discrete set of waveforms ..
And we can represent it like (0 or 1) ,( on or off )….. etc
Examples:
 Light switch can be either on or off
 What is a Digital-Analog Converter?
REFERENCE
INPUT RESOLUTION
RESOLUTION ANALOG
==NNBITS
BITS OUTPUT
DIGITAL
INPUT

Digital Input
Analog Output = x Reference Input
(2 - 1)
N

• Produces a Quantized (Discrete Step) Analog Output (Voltage or Current) in Response to Binary Digital
Input Code
• A reference quantity (either voltage or current) is accurately divided into binary and/or linear segments.
• The digital input drives switches that connect an appropriate number of segments to the output.
• Finite Number of Discrete Values : 2N Resulting in Quantization Uncertainty
• Sampling and Quantization Impose Fundamental yet Predictable Limitations
 Analog Output Signal

0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011
Digital Input Signal

Two Types of DAC:

• Binary Weighted Resistor
• R-2R Ladder
 Terms & Equations
Offset: minimum analog value

Span (or Range): difference between maximum and minimum analog values
Max - Min
n: number of bits in digital code (sometimes referred to as n-bit resolution)

Bit Weight: analog value corresponding to a bit in the digital number

Step Size (or Resolution): smallest analog change resulting from changing one bit in
the digital number, or the analog difference between two consecutive digital numbers;
also the bit weight of the

Span / 2n (Assume M = 2n)

Let AV be Analog Value; DN be Digital Number:

AV = DN * Step Size + Offset = (DN / 2n )* Span + Offset
DN = (AV - Offset) / Step Size = (AV - Offset) * 2n / Span
 Bit Weight Example: -5 V to +5 V analog range, n=8
Each bit is weighted with an analog Solution Vref(pp)=10v
value, such that a 1 in that bit position
Digital Bit Bit Weight (V)
adds its analog value to the total analog
value represented by the digital 7 10/2 = 5
encoding.
6 10/4 = 2.5
Binary Weighted Resistor 5 10/8 = 1.25
• Utilizes a summing op-amp circuit 4 10/16 = 0.625
• Weighted resistors are used to distinguish each bit from the 3 10/32 = 0.313
most significant to the least significant 2 10/64 = 0.157

• Transistors are used to switch between Vref and ground (bit 1 10/128 = 0.078

high or low) 0 10/256 = 0.039

 Binary Weighted Resistor
Voltages V1 through Vn are either Vref if corresponding
• Assume Ideal Op-amp
bit is high or ground if corresponding bit is low
• No current into op-amp
• Virtual ground at inverting input V1 is most significant bit, Vn is least significant bit
Vref
• Vout= -IRf
V1
R
Vref
V2 2R I Rf

R V3 4R
I Rf - Vout
2R
+
4R Vn 2n-1R
- Vout
+
MSB
2R
n LSB

 V1 V2 V3 Vn 
Vout   IRf   Rf      n -1 
 R 2R 4R 2 R
 If Rf=R/2  V1 V2 V3 Vn 
Vout   IRf      n 
 2 4 8 2 
For example, a 4-Bit converter yields
 1 1 1 1 
Vout  Vref  b3  b2  b1  b0 
 2 4 8 16 
Where b3 corresponds to Bit-3, b2 to Bit-2, etc.

Advantages
Simple Construction/Analysis
Fast Conversion

Disadvantages
Requires large range of resistors (2000:1 for 12-bit DAC) with necessary high precision for low resistors
Requires low switch resistances in transistors
Can be expensive. Therefore, usually limited to 8-bit resolution.
R-2R Ladder
Each bit corresponds to a switch:
If the bit is high, the corresponding
switch is connected to the inverting input of
the op-amp.
If the bit is low, the corresponding switch
is connected to ground.

Bit: 0 0 0 0
4-Bit Converter
R-2R Ladder
V3
Vref V1 V2 V3
Ideal Op-amp

2R 2R

Req 
 2 R  2 R 
R
 2R  2R
R-2R Ladder
Vref V1 V2 V3 V2 V3

R R

 R  1
V3    2
V  V2
 RR 2
I
Likewise,
1
V2  V1
Vout 2
1
V1  Vref
2
Vout   IR
R-2R Ladder
Results:
Vref V1 V2 V3 1 1 1
V3  Vref , V2  Vref , V1  Vref
8 4 2

 Vref Vref Vref Vref 

Vout   R b3  b2  b1  b0 
 2R 4R 8R 16 R 

Where b3 corresponds to bit 3,

b2 to bit 2, etc.
Vout
If bit n is set, bn=1

If bit n is clear, bn=0

 For a 4-Bit R-2R Ladder

 1 1 1 1
Vout  Vref  b3  b2  b1  b0 
 2 4 8 16 
For general n-Bit R-2R Ladder or Binary Weighted Resister DAC

n
1
Vout  Vref  bn i i
• Advantages
• Only two resistor values (R and 2R)
i 1 2 • Does not require high precision
resistors
• Disadvantage
• Lower conversion speed than binary
weighted DAC
Specifications of DACs
• Resolution Resolution
• Speed Smallest analog increment corresponding to 1 LSB change
An N-bit resolution can resolve 2N distinct analog levels
• Linearity
Common DAC has a 8-16 bit resolution
• Settling Time Vref
Resolution  VLSB 
• Reference Voltages 2N
• where N  number of bits
Errors
Speed
Rate of conversion of a single digital input to its analog equivalent
Conversion rate depends on
clock speed of input signal
settling time of converter
When the input changes rapidly, the DAC conversion speed must be high.
 Settling Time
• Time required for the output signal to settle within +/- ½ LSB of its final value after a
given change in input scale
• Limited by slew rate of output amplifier
• Ideally, an instantaneous change in analog voltage would occur when a new binary word
enters into DAC
 Types of Errors Associated with DACs
• Gain
• Offset
• Full Scale
• Resolution
• Non-Linearity
• Settling Time and Overshoot
 OSCILLATOR
Oscillators are circuits that produce a continuous signal of some type without
the need of an input.
These signals serve a variety of purposes such as communications systems,
digital systems (including computers), and test equipment
 An oscillator is a circuit that produces a repetitive signal from a dc voltage.
There are two major classifications for oscillators:
The feedback oscillator relies on a positive feedback of the output to
maintain the oscillations.
 The relaxation oscillator makes use of an RC timing circuit to generate a
non-sinusoidal signal such as square wave.
 • A feedback oscillator consists of amplifier for gain and a positive
feedback circuit that produces phase shift and provides attenuation.

Ve = Vi + Vf (1)
Vo = AVe (2)
Vf = (AVe)=Vo (3)
From (1), (2) and (3)
  Vo A  As a function of s
Af ≡ =
V 𝑖 ( 1− Aβ )
where A is loop gain

• Instead of feedback, a relaxation oscillator uses an RC timing circuit to generate a

waveform that is generally a square wave or other non sinusoidal waveform. Typically,
Schmitt trigger or other device are uses for changes states to alternately charge and
discharge a capacitor through a resistor.
 Feedback oscillators
 Two conditions are required for a sustained state of oscillation:
1. The phase shift around the feedback loop must be 0° or 360°.
2. The voltage gain, Acl , around the closed feedback loop (loop gain) must equal 1 (unity)
(Barkhaussen criterion)

Types of oscillator depending on the feedback components, amplifiers

and circuit topologies used

1.RC Oscillator - Wien Bridge Oscillator

- Phase-Shift Oscillator
2. LC Oscillator - Crystal Oscillator

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
1.RC Oscillators
RC feedback oscillators are generally limited to frequencies of 1MHz or less
The types of RC oscillators that we will discuss are the Wien-Bridge and the Phase Shift
Wien-Bridge Oscillator
It is a low frequency oscillator which
ranges from a few kHz to 1 MHz.

ZS

1 1  sRC
Z S  R  ZC  R  
sC sC
1 1
1 1  1
ZP
Z P  R Z C       sC 
 R ZC  R 
R

1  sCR
Oscillation condition Phase of  f Ar equal to 180o. It already is since  f Ar  0.
 R  sCR
Then need only  f Ar  1  2  1
 R1  sCR  (1  sCR ) 2

Rewriting
 R  sCR
 f Ar  1  2 
 R1  sCR  (1  sCR ) 2
 R  sCR
 1  2 
 R1  sCR  1  2 sCR  s 2C 2 R 2 
 R  sCR  R2  1
 1  2   
 1  
 R1  1  3sCR  s C R
2 2 2
 R1  3  1  sCR
sCR
 R  1
 1  2 
 R1   1 
3  j  CR  
 CR 
Then imaginary term  0 at the oscillatio n frequency
1
  o 
RC
Then, we can get  f Ar  1 by selecting the resistors R1 and R2
appropriat ely using
 R 1 R
1  2   1 or 2  2
 R1  3 R1
 The Phase-Shift Oscillator
• The phase-shift oscillator uses three RC circuits in the feedback path that have a total phase
shift of 180° at one frequency – for this reason an inverting amplifier is required for this
circuit

• Each of the three RC circuits in the feedback

loop provide a maximum phase shift
approaching 90°.
• Oscillation occurs at the frequency
where the total phase shift through the
three RC circuits is 180°.
• The inversion of the op-amp itself provides the additional 180° to meet the
requirement for oscillation of a 360° (or 0°) phase shift around the feedback loop.
 The attenuation of the three-section RC feedback circuit is 1/29
To meet the unity loop gain requirement, the closed-loop voltage gain of the inverting
op-amp must Electronic
be 29. This means that ©R2012
Devices, 9th edition R3 ≥Education.
f /Pearson 29. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458. All rights reserved.
Thomas L. Floyd
• The frequency of oscillation is given by
• Example
 LC Oscillators
• LC feedback elements are normally used in oscillators that require higher
frequencies of oscillation.
• Also, because of the frequency limitation (lower unity- gain frequency) of
most op-amps, transistors (BJT or FET) are often used as the gain element in
LC oscillators.
• Several types of resonant LC feedback oscillators like the Colpitts, Clapp, Hartley,
and crystal-controlled oscillators.

 Colpitts oscillator is one of basic type of resonant

circuit feedback oscillator uses an LC circuit in the
feedback loop to provide the necessary phase shift and
to act as a resonant filter that passes only the desired
frequency of oscillation.

Colpitts oscillators
 The Colpitts Oscillator
The approximate frequency of oscillation is the resonant frequency of the LC circuit
and is established by the values of C1 , C2 and L according to the formula:

𝑓 𝑟=
𝑓𝑟 1
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶
𝑇𝑇

Where CT is the total capacitance the series capacitors around the tank circuit, given by:

𝐶=
𝐶𝑇 𝑇 𝐶1𝐶2
𝐶1 + 𝐶2
The output voltage is developed across C1 and the feedback voltage is developed across C2 .
The expression for the attenuation is 𝐵 = 𝐶2 /𝐶1
The condition for oscillation is 𝐴𝑣𝐵 = 1 or 𝐴𝑣=𝐶1 /𝐶2

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 The Hartley Oscillator

 The Hartley oscillator is similar to the Colpitts oscillator, except the resonant circuit
consists of two series inductors (or a single tapped inductor) and a parallel capacitor.

 The inductors act in a role similar to C1 and C2 in the Colpitts to determine the
attenuation, B, of the feedback circuit B = (L1 / L2).
To assure start-up of oscillation, Av
must be greater than 1/B

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Relaxation Oscillators
• Relaxation oscillators make use of an RC timing and a device that changes states to
generate a periodic waveform (non-sinusoidal) such as:
• Triangular-wave
• Square-wave
• Sawtooth
1. Triangular-wave oscillator circuit is a combination of a comparator and integrator
circuit.

  1 𝑅2   𝑅3   𝑅3
𝑓 𝑟=
( )
4 𝐶 𝑅 1 𝑅3
𝑉 𝑈𝑇𝑃 =+𝑉 𝑚𝑎𝑥
( )
𝑅2 ❑
𝑉 𝐿𝑇𝑃 =−𝑉 max
( )
𝑅2 ❑
 2. Square-wave Oscillator
 A square wave relaxation oscillator is like the Schmitt trigger or Comparator circuit.
 The charging and discharging of the capacitor cause the op-amp to switch states rapidly and produce
a square wave.
 The RC time constant determines the frequency.
 3. Sawtooth Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
• Sawtooth VCO circuit is a combination of a Programmable Operation
Unijunction Transistor (PUT) and integrator circuit. Initially, dc input = -VIN
• Volt = 0V, Vanode < VG
• The circuit is like an integrator.
• Capacitor is charging.
• Output is increasing positive going ramp.

When Vout = VP
 Vanode > VG , PUT turn ‘ON’

VP-maximum peak value  The capacitor rapidly

discharges.
VF-minimum peak value
 Vout drop until Vout = VF.
  𝑉 𝐼𝑁 1
𝑓= (
𝑅𝑖 𝐶 𝑉 𝑃 − 𝑉 𝐹 )  Vanode < VG , PUT turn ‘OFF’
Summary
 Sinusoidal oscillators operate with positive feedback.

 Two conditions for oscillation are 0º feedback phase shift and feedback loop gain of 1.
 The initial startup requires the gain to be momentarily greater than 1.
 RC oscillators include the Wien-bridge and phase shift.
 LC oscillators include the Crystal Oscillator.
 The crystal actually uses a crystal as the LC tank circuit and is very stable and accurate.
 A voltage controlled oscillator’s (VCO) frequency is controlled by a dc control voltage.