Rock Mechanics and Rock

Engineering
Group members:

Earl Rajimal Riogelon

Dick Tracy Saljay
Aira leigh Lampon
Rusty Pasawa
Vince Gornez
x
 WHY ROCK MECHANICS
IMPORTANT?
- Rock mechanics determines how a particular rock reacts when it is put to the
use required by mankind for buildings, roads, bridges, dams, tunnels, and
other civil engineering uses. It will assess the bearing capacity of the rock on
the surface and how the force applied on the rock by the structures being
built on it will affect the rock at various depths.
- Rock mechanics will determine the shear strength of the rock, which in turn
will allow the rock to resist the forces applied to it.

- Rock mechanics can also determine the response of rock when it is subjected
to dynamic loading that may be a result of manmade applications or natural
occurrences like earthquakes. The failure mechanism of rocks will allow
engineers to counteract these so that the structures built on the rock are
safe.
- Rock mechanics will also study the effect that defects in the rock from
cavities, fissures, joints and bedding planes can have on structures founded
on them.
 Overview

Rock mechanics is the theoretical and applied

science of the mechanical behaviour of rock
and rock masses. Rock mechanics deals with
the mechanical properties of rock and the
related methodologies required for engineering
design.

The subject of rock mechanics has evolved from

different disciplines of applied mechanics. It is a
truly interdisciplinary subject, with applications
in geology and geophysics, mining, petroleum and
geotechnical engineering.

x
 Rock Mechanics and
Rock Engineering

Rock mechanics involves

characterizing the intact strength
and the geometry and mechanical
properties of the natural fractures
of the rock mass.

Rock engineering is concerned with

specific engineering circumstances,
for example, how much load will the
rock support and whether
reinforcement is necessary.

x
 Rock as an engineering material will
be used either:

 as a building material so the structure will be made of

rock

 a structure will be built on the rock or

 a structure will be built in the rock

In the context of the mechanics, we must establish:

… the properties of the material
… the pre-existing stress state in the ground (which will
be disturbed by the structure)
… and how these factors relate to the engineering objective
 In Rock
Tunnels and Mines

Rock Slopes Surface Mining Rock Shafts and

Tunnels

Radioactive Waste
Rock Underground Mining Geothermal
Disposal
 On Rock
Foundation for Engineering Structures

Millau Viaduct (France)

Vaiont Dam (Italy)

Toronto CN Tower
(Canada)

Hoover Dam (Colorado, USA)

 Of Rock
Rock as a Construction Material

St. Isaak’s Cathedral The Coliseum

(St. Petersburg, Russia)Washington Monument (Rome, Italy)
(USA)

Arch of Triumph (Paris, France) Egyptian Pyramids(Egypt)

 Nature of
Rock
A common assumption when dealing with
the mechanical behaviour of solids is that
they are:
· homogeneous
· continuous
· isotropic

However, rocks are much more complex

than this and their physical and mechanical
properties vary according to scale. As a
solid material, rock is often:
· heterogeneous
· discontinuous
· anisotropic

x
 Intact
Rock

x
 Rock as an Engineering Material
One of the most important, and frequently neglected, aspects of
rock mechanics and rock engineering is that we are utilizing an
existing material which is usually highly variable.

intact ‘layered’ intact highly fractured

x
 Influence of Geological Factors
Five primary geological factors can be viewed as influencing a rock
mass. In the context of the mechanics problem, we should consider
the material and the forces applied to it.

We have the intact rock which is itself divided by discontinuities

to form the rock structure.

We find then the rock is already subjected to an in situ stress.

Superimposed on this fundamental mechanics circumstance are

the influence of pore fluid/water flow and time.

In all of these subjects, the geological history has played its part,
altering the rock and the applied forces.

x
 Influence ofGeological Factors
– Intact Rock

The most useful description of the

mechanical behaviour of intact rock is the
complete stress-strain curve in uniaxial
compression.

From this curve, several features of interest

are derived:

· the deformation modulus

· the peak compressive strength
· the post-peak behaviour

x
 Influence ofGeological Factors
Discontinuities
– and Rock Structure
The result in terms of rock fracturing is to produce a geometrical
structure (often very complex) of fractures forming rock blocks. The
overall geometrical configuration of the discontinuities in the rock
mass is termed rock structure. It is often helpful to understand the
way in which discontinuities form. There are three ways in which a
fracture can be formed:

Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3

(tensile) (in-plane shear) (out-of-plane shear)

x
 Influence of
Structure &
In Situ Rock
Stress
Together

… types of failure which occur in

different rock masses under low and
high in situ stress levels.

x
 Influence ofGeological Factors
Discontinuities
– and Rock Structure
In practice, failure is most often associated with discontinuities which
act as pre-existing planes of weakness. Some examples of the way in
which the discontinuity genesis leads to differing mechanical
properties are:

… open joint which will … stylolitic discontinuity … slickensided fault

allow free flow of with high shear surface with low shear
water. resistance. resistance.

x
 Influence ofGeological Factors
P
– re-Existing In Situ Rock
Stress
When considering the loading conditions imposed on the rock structure,
it must be recognized that an in situ pre-existing state of stress
already exists in the rock.

In some cases, such as a dam or nuclear power station foundation, the

load is applied to this.

In other cases, such as the excavation of a mine or tunnel, no new

loads are applied but the pre- existing stresses are redistributed.

x
 Influence ofGeological Factors
– Pore Fluids and Water Flow

Many rocks in their intact state have a very low

permeability compared to the duration of the engineering
construction, but the main water flow is usually via
secondary permeability, (i.e. pre-existing fractures).
Thus the study of flow in rock masses will generally be a
function of the discontinuities, their connectivity and
the hydrogeological environment.

A primary concern is when the water is under pressure,

which in turn acts to reduce the effective stress
and/or induce instabilities.
Other aspects, such as groundwater chemistry and the
alteration of rock and fracture surfaces by fluid
movement may also be of concern.

x
 Influence ofGeological Factors –
Time
Rock as an engineering material may be
millions of years old, however our engineering
construction and subsequent activities are
generally only designed for a century or less.
Thus we have two types of behaviour: the
geological processes in which equilibrium will
have been established, with current geological
activity superimposed; and the rapid
engineering process.
The influence of time is also important given
such factors as the decrease in rock strength
through time, and the effects of creep and
relaxation

x
 Scalars, Vectors and Tensors
There is a fundamental difference, both conceptually and
mathematically, between a tensor and the more familiar quantities of
scalars and vectors:

Scalar: a quantity with magnitude only (e.g. temperature, time,

mass).

Vector: a quantity with magnitude and direction (e.g. force, velocity,

acceleration).

Tensor: a quantity with magnitude and direction, and with reference

to a plane it is acting across (e.g. stress, strain, permeability).

Both mathematical and engineering mistakes are easily made if this

crucial difference is not recognized and understood.

x
 Normal and Shear Stress Components
On a real or imaginary plane through a material, there can be normal
forces and shear forces. These forces create the stress tensor. The
normal and shear stress components are the normal and shear forces
per unit area.

It should be remembered that a solid can sustain a shear force,

whereas a liquid or gas cannot. A liquid or gas contains a pressure,
which acts equally in all directions and hence is a scalar quantity.

x
 Force and Stress
We are now in a position to obtain an initial idea of the crucial
difference between forces and stresses.

When the normal force component, Fn, is found in a

direction  from F, the value is F cos i.e. Fn = F cos
.

However, when the normal stress

component, n, is found in the same
direction, the value is  cos2 i.e. n =
 cos2 .

x
 Force and Stress
The reason for this is that it is only the force that is resolved in the
first case (i.e. vector), whereas, it is both the force and the area
that are resolved in the case of stress (i.e. tensor).

In fact, the strict definition of a second-order tensor is a quantity

that obeys certain transformation laws as the planes in question are
rotated. This is why the conceptualization of the stress tensor utilizes
the idea of magnitude, direction and “the plane in question”.

x
 Stress as a Point Property

We can now consider the stress components

on a surface at an arbitrary orientation
through a body loaded by external forces
(e.g. F1, F2, …, Fn).

Consider now the forces that are required

to act in order to maintain equilibrium on a
small area of a surface created by cutting
through the rock. On any small area A,
equilibrium can be maintained by the normal
force N and the shear force S.

x
 Stress as a Point Property
Because these forces will vary according to
the orientation of A within the slice, it is
most useful to consider the normal stress
(N/A) and the shear stress (S/A) as the
area A becomes very small, eventually
approaching zero.

Although there are practical limitations in reducing the size of the

area to zero, it is important to realize that the stress
components are defined in this way as mathematical quantities,
with the result that stress is a point property.

x
 Intact
Rock

x
 Uniaxial Compression Test

… typical record from a uniaxial compression test. Note that the force
and displacement have been scaled respectively to stress (by dividing by
the original cross-sectional area of the specimen) and to strain (by
dividing by the original length).

x
 Stages of Stress-Strain
Behaviour
As the rock is gradually loaded, it passes through several
stages:
 axial

peak  uc Stage I - Existing cracks

preferentially aligned to the
strength s

applied stress will close ( cc

crack damage t hreshold
 cd

crack initiation threshold

).
ci
crack closure t hreshold
 cc
Stage II - Near linear elastic
stress-strain behaviour occurs.
lat eral  axi
C al
on
tra Stage III - Initiating cracks
propagate in a stable fashion (ci).
cti Tot al
on Measured
  V/V
V/

Stage IV - Cracks begin to

V Calculated
Di Crack Volumetric

coalesce and propagate in an

lat Strain
io Crack Crack
Closure Growth
n
unstable fashion (cd)
axi
al

x
 Elastic Constants
Focussing on the interval of near linear behaviour, we can draw analogies
to the ideal elastic rock represented by our elastic compliance matrix.
Remembering that the Young’s modulus, E, is defined as the ratio of
stress to strain (i.e. 1/S11), it can be determined in two ways:

Tangent Young’s modulus, ET – taken

as the slope of the axial - curve at
some fixed percentage, generally
50%, of the peak strength.

Secant Young’s modulus, ES – taken as

the slope of the line joining the origin
of the axial - curve to a point on
the curve at some fixed percentage
of the peak strength.

x
 Elastic Constants

… differentiation between elastic and plastic strains, with

definition of the Young’s modulus, E, and Poisson’s ratio,
.

x
 Elastic Constants

… typical values of
Young’s modulus and
Poisson’s ratio for
various rock types

x
 Compressive Strength
Another important parameter in the uniaxial compression test is the
maximum stress that the test sample can sustain. Under uniaxial loading
conditions, the peak stress is referred to as the uniaxial compressive
strength, c.

It is important to realize
that the compressive
strength is not an intrinsic
property. Intrinsic material
properties do not depend on
the specimen geometry or
the loading conditions used in
the test: the uniaxial
compressive strength does.

x
 Compressive Strength

The compressive strength is probably the most widely used and

quoted rock engineering parameter and therefore it is crucial to
understand its nature. In other forms of engineering, if the
applied stress reaches c, there can be catastrophic consequences.
This is not always the case in rock engineering as rock often
retains some load bearing capacity in the post peak region of the
- curve.

Whether failure beyond c is to be avoided at all costs, or to be

encouraged, is a function of the engineering objective, the form of
the complete stress-strain curve for the rock (or rock mass), and
the characteristics of the loading conditions. These features are
crucial in the design and analysis of underground excavations.

x
 Effects of Specimen Size
Having described how the complete - curve can be obtained
experimentally, we can now consider other factors that affect the
complete - curves of laboratory tested rock.

If the ratio of sample length to

diameter is kept constant, both
compressive strength and brittleness
are reduced for larger samples.
Rock specimens contain microcracks:
the larger the specimen, the
greater the number of microcracks
and hence the greater the likelihood
of a critical flaw and effects
associated with crack initiation and
propagation.

x
 Effects of Loading Conditions

Intact rock strength is dependent on the types of stresses applied to it.

In other words, rock has strength in tension, compression and shear.

… these different
strengths may be tested
either directly (e.g.
uniaxial tension test,
direct shear test, etc.)
or indirectly (e.g.
Brazilian tensile test,
triaxial compression test,
etc.).

x
 Effects of Loading Conditions

With the application of a confining load an additional energy input is

needed to overcome frictional resistance to sliding over a jagged
rupture path. Most rocks are therefore strengthened by the addition
of a confining stress.

As the confining pressure is increased, the rapid decline in load

carrying capacity after the peak load is reached becomes less striking
until, after a mean pressure known as the brittle-to-ductile
transition pressure, the rock behaves in a near plastic manner.

x
 Pore Pressure Effects
Some rocks are weakened by the addition of water, the effect being a chemical
deterioration of the cement or binding material. In most cases, however, it is
the effect of pore water pressure that exerts the greatest influence on rock
strength. If drainage is impeded during loading, the pores or fissures will
compress the contained water, raising its pressure. The resulting effect is
described by Terzaghi’s effective stress law:

… as pore pressure “P” increases the effective normal stresses are reduced and
the Mohr circles are displaced towards failure.

x
 Temperature Effects
Only a limited amount information is available indicating the effect of
temperature on the complete - curve and other mechanical
properties of intact rock.

The limited test data does show

though, that increasing
temperatures reduces the elastic
modulus and compressive
strength, whilst increasing the
ductility in the post-peak region.

x
 Failure Criterion

Rock fails through an extremely complex process of microcrack initiation

and propagation that is not subject to convenient characterization
through simplified models. Building on the history of material testing, it
was natural to express the strength of a material in terms of the stress
present in the test specimen at failure (i.e. phenomenological
approach).

Since uniaxial and triaxial testing of rock are by far the most common
laboratory procedures, the most obvious means of expressing a failure
criterion is:

Strength = ƒ (1, 2, 3)

Or with the advent of stiff and servo-controlled testing machines:

Strength = ƒ (1, 2, 3)

x
 Mohr-Coulomb Criterion

The Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion expresses the relationship

between the shear stress and the normal stress at failure along a
hypothetical failure plane. In two-dimensions, this is expressed as:

peak = c + n tan 

Where:
 is called the angle of internal friction (equivalent to
the angle of inclination of a surface sufficient to cause
sliding of a block of similar material);
c is the cohesion (and represents the shear strength of
the rock when no normal stress is applied); and
peak is the peak shear strength.

x
 Mohr-Coulomb Criterion

This can be presented graphically using a Mohr circle diagram:

x
 Mohr-Coulomb Criterion
The Mohr-Coulomb criterion is most suitable at high confining pressures when
rock generally fails through the development of shear planes. However, some
limitations are :

- it implies that a major shear fracture exists at peak strength, at a specific

angle, which does not always agree with experimental observations;
- it predicts a shear failure in uniaxial tension (at 45-/2 with 3) whereas for
rock this failure plane is perpendicular to 3. A tension cutoff has been
introduced to the Mohr-Coulomb criterion to predict the proper orientation
of the failure plane in tension.
- experimental peak strength envelopes are generally non-linear. They can be
considered linear only over limited ranges of confining pressures.

Despite these difficulties, the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion remains one of

the most commonly applied failure criterion, and is especially significant and valid
for discontinuities and discontinuous rock masses.

x
 The Hoek-Brown Empirical Failure Criterion
The Hoek-Brown empirical criterion was developed from a best-fit curve
to experimental failure data plotted in 1- 3 space. Since this is one of
the few techniques available for estimating in situ rock mass strength
from geological data, the criterion has become widely used in rock
mechanics analysis.

1 = 3 + (m c 3+ sc2)0.5

where c is the intact compressive strength, s

is a rock mass constant (s=1 for intact rock,
s<1 for broken rock), and m is a constant
(characteristic of the rock type where values
range from 25, for coarse grained igneous and
metamorphic rocks to 7 for carbonate rocks).

x
 Discontinuities

It is the existence of discontinuities in a rock

mass that makes rock mechanics a unique
subject. The word ‘discontinuity’ denotes any
separation in the rock continuum having
effectively zero tensile strength and is used
without any generic connotation (e.g. joints and
faults are types of discontinuities formed in
different ways).

Discontinuities have been introduced into the rock

by geological events, at different times and as a
result of different stress states. Very often,
the process by which a discontinuity has been
formed may have implications for its geometrical
and mechanical properties.

x
 Discontinuities

In fact, all rock masses are fractured, and it is a very rare case
where the spacings between discontinuities are appreciably greater
than the dimensions of the rock engineering project. Very often
major discontinuities delineate blocks within the rock mass, and
within these blocks there is a further suite of discontinuities.

Thus, we might expect that a

relation of the form:

should exist.

x
 Geometrical Properties of Discontinuity

The main features of rock mass geometry include spacing and

frequency, orientation (dip direction/dip angle), persistence (size
and shape), roughness, aperture, clustering and block size.

There is, however, no standardized method of measuring and

characterizing rock structure geometry, because the emphasis and
accuracy with which the separate parameters are specified will depend
on the engineering objectives.

x
 Discontinuity Spacing and Frequency

Spacing is the distance between adjacent discontinuity intersections

with the measuring scanline. Frequency (i.e. the number per unit
distance) is the reciprocal of spacing (i.e. the mean of these
intersection distances).

… quantifying discontinuity occurrence

along a sampling line, where frequency
=N/L m-1 and mean spacing x=L/N m.

x
 Rock Quality Designation

A natural clustering of
discontinuities occurs through
the genetic process of
superimposed fracture phases,
each of which could have a
different spacing distribution.
An important feature for
engineering is the overall quality
of the rock mass cut by these
superimposed fracture systems.
For this reason, the concept
of the RQD was developed.

x
 Discontinuity Orientation
If we assume that a discontinuity is a planar feature, then its orientation can
be uniquely defined by two parameters:
dip direction and dip angle. It is often
useful to present this data in a graphical form to aid visualization and
engineering analysis.

It must be remembered though,

that it may be difficult to
distinguish which set a particular
discontinuity belongs to or that in
some cases a single discontinuity
may be the controlling factor as
opposed to a set of
discontinuities.

x
 Discontinuity Persistence

Persistence refers to the lateral extent of a discontinuity plane, either

the overall dimensions of the plane, or in terms of whether it contains
‘rock bridges’. In practice, the persistence is almost always measured
by the one dimensional extent of the trace lengths as exposed on rock
faces. This obviously introduces a degree of sampling bias that must be
accounted for in the interpretation of results.

x
 Discontinuity Roughness

The word ‘roughness’ is used to denote

deviation of a discontinuity surface from
perfect planarity, which can rapidly become a
complex mathematical procedure utilizing 3-
D surface characterization techniques (e.g.
polynomials, Fourier series, fractals).

From the practical point of view, only one

technique has received some degree of
universality – the Joint Roughness Coefficient
(JRC). This method involves comparing
discontinuity surface profiles to standard
roughness curves assigned numerical values.

The geometrical roughness is naturally

related to various mechanical and hydraulic
properties of discontinuities.

x
 Discontinuity Aperture
The aperture is the distance between adjacent walls of a
discontinuity. This parameter has mechanical and hydraulic
importance, and a distribution of apertures for any given
discontinuity and for different discontinuities within the same
rock mass is expected.

x
 Mechanical Properties of Discontinuities

The mechanical behaviour of discontinuities

is generally plotted in the form of
stress- displacement curves, with the
result that we can measure discontinuity
stiffness (typically expressed in units of
MPa/m) and strength.

In compression, the rock surfaces are

gradually pushed together, with an obvious
limit when the two surfaces are closed.
In tension, by definition, discontinuities
can sustain no load. In shear, the
stress- displacement curve looks like that
for compression of intact rock, except of
course failure is localized along the
discontinuity.

x
 Mechanical Properties - Strength
It is normally assumed that the shear strength of discontinuities is a
function of the friction angle rather than the cohesion. This is done by
using the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, = c + tan, and setting
the cohesion to zero.

x
 Mechanical Properties - Strength

The bi-linear failure criterion introduces

the idea that the irregularity of
discontinuity surfaces could be
approximated by an asperity angle i onto
which the basic friction angle is
superimposed.

Thus, at low normal stresses, shear

loading causes the discontinuity surfaces
to dilate giving an effective friction of
(+i). As the shear loading continues, the
shear surfaces become damaged as
asperities are sheared and the two
surfaces ride on top of one another,
giving a transition zone before the
failure locus stabilizes at an angle of .

x
 Rock Masses
Building on our examination of first intact rock behaviour and then
discontinuity behaviour, we can now concentrate on extending these
ideas to provide a predictive model for the deformability and strength
of rock masses.

x
 Rock Mass Deformability
As an initial step in determining the overall deformability of a
rock mass, we can first consider the deformation of a set of
parallel discontinuities under the action of a normal stress,
assuming linear elastic discontinuity stiffnesses.

To calculate the overall modulus of deformation, the applied

stress is divided by the total deformation. We will assume that
deformation is made up of two components: one related to the
intact rock; the other to the discontinuities.

x
 Rock Mass Deformability
The contribution made by the intact rock to the deformation, I, is L/E (i.e.
strain multiplied by length). The contribution made by a single discontinuity to
the deformation, D, is /ED (remembering that ED relates to displacement
directly). Assuming a discontinuity frequency of , there will be
L discontinuities in the rock mass and the total contribution made by these to
the deformation will be Dt, which is equal to  L /ED. Hence, the total
displacement, T, is:

Hence, the total displacement, T, is:

With the overall strain being given by:

Finally, the overall modulus, EMASS, is given by:

x
 Rock Mass Deformability

… variation of in situ rock

deformability as a function of
the discontinuities (for the
idealized case of a single set of
discontinuities).

x
 RockMass
Strength
In the same way as we considered the deformability of a rock mass,
expressions can be developed indicating how strength is affected by
the presence of discontinuities, starting with a single discontinuity and
then extending to any number of discontinuities.

… scale dependent strength of a single

discontinuity.
x
 RockMass
The initial approachStrength
is via the ‘single plane of weakness’ theory,
whereby the strength of a sample of intact rock containing a single
discontinuity can be established. Basically, the stress applied to the
sample is resolved into the normal and shear stresses on the plane of
weakness and the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion applied to consider
the possibility of slip.

Given the geometry of the applied loading

condition:

x
 RockMass
Strength
The strength of the sample thus depends on the orientation of
the discontinuity. If the discontinuity is, for example, parallel or
perpendicular to the applied loading, it will have no effect on the
sample strength. At some angles, however, the discontinuity will
significantly reduce the strength of the sample.

The lowest strength occurs when the discontinuity normal is

inclined at an angle of 45° + (°/2) to the major applied
principal stress.

x
 RockMass
Strength
The plot of rock strength and the discontinuity angles at which the
sample strength becomes less than that for intact rock can be
derived by substituting the ‘single discontinuity’ normal and shear
stress relationships into the Mohr-Coulomb criterion:

Substituted into
|| = cw + ntanw gives:

Where cw and w are the

cohesion and friction for the
discontinuity.
x
 RockMass
Strength
An alternative presentation of the ‘single plane of weakness’ rock
strength theory is via the Mohr’s circle representation. The Mohr-
Coulomb failure loci for both intact rock and the discontinuity are
given.

Circle A – case where the failure locus for the discontinuity is just reached,
i.e. for a discontinuity at the angle 2w=90°+w.
Circle B – case when failure can occur along the discontinuity for a range of
angles.
Circle C – case where the Mohr circle touches the intact rock failure locus, i.e.
where failure occurs in the intact rock.

x
 RockMass
Strength
We can consider, on the basis of this single plane of weakness
theory, what would happen if there were two or more discontinuities
at different orientations present in the rock sample. Each
discontinuity would weaken the sample as shown below, but the
angular position of the strength minima would not coincide.

As a result the rock is weakened in several different directions

simultaneously.With increasing fractures, the material tends to
become isotropic in strength, like a granular soil.

x
 Rock Mass Strength – Hoek-
Brown
A methodology of assessing
rock mass strength that does
not depend on the ‘single
plane of weakness’ theory is
the Hoek-Brown failure
criterion. The criterion is
especially powerful in its
application to rock masses
due to the constants m and s
being able to take on values
which permit prediction of
the strengths of a wide
range of rock masses.

x
Rock Mass
Strength

… Hoek-Brown
representation and
summary of rock
mass conditions,
testing methods
and theoretical
considerations.

x
 Rock Mass Strength – Hoek-
Brown
For intact rock, the
Hoek-Brown criterion may
be expressed as:

The more general form,

however, was derived
to take into account
the fractured nature
of the rock mass
through the
parameters s and a.

x
 Rock Mass
Strength –
Hoek-
Brown

… Hoek-Brown ‘m’
values for different
rock types.

x
 Rock Mass
Strength – Hoek-
Brown

… estimation of Hoek-
Brown constants and rock
mass deformation
constants based on rock
mass structure and
discontinuity surface
conditions.
x
 Rock Mass Strength – Hoek-
Brown

… the Hoek-Brown empirical

criterion applied to a sandstone
rock mass. The criterion
represents best-fit curves to
experimental failure data
plotted in 1- 3 space.

x
 Mohr’s Circle
 The transformation equations for plane stress can
be represented in graphical form by a plot known
as Mohr’s Circle.
 This graphical representation is extremely useful
because it enables you to visualize the
relationships between the normal and shear
stresses acting on various inclined planes at a
point in a stressed body.
 Using Mohr’s Circle you can also calculate principal
stresses, maximum shear stresses and stresses on
inclined planes.