Data Communication &

Computer Networks

Lecture 2
Introduction to Data Communication

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Data Communications

 The term telecommunication means

communication at a distance. The word data
refers to information presented in whatever
form is agreed upon by the parties creating
and using the data. Data communications are
the exchange of data between two devices
via some form of transmission medium such
as a wire cable.

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Fundamental Characteristics
 The effectiveness of a data communication system
depend on four fundamental characteristics:
 Delivery
 The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the intended device or user
and only by that device or user.
 Accuracy
The system must deliver the data accurately.
 Timelines
 In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the
same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called

real-time transmission .
 Jitter
Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of
audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 3D
ms. If some of the packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with 4D-ms delay, an uneven
quality in the video is the result.
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Five Components of Data Communication

1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated

2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.

4. Medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial
cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.

5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an

agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a
person who speaks only Japanese.
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Direction of data flow
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-
duplex

Simplex

Half Duplex

Full Duplex

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 Simplex
 In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only
one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive
 Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices.
 half-duplex
mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. : When one
device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa
 Full-duplex
 (called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously
 One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network.

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NETWORKS
 A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected
by communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any
other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by
other nodes on the network.

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Networks: key issues
 Network criteria: A network must be able to meet a certain number
of criteria. The most important of these are

 Performance
Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another
Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.

 Throughput
 Delay

We often need more throughput and less delay. If we try to send more data to the network, we
may increase throughput but we increase the delay because of traffic congestion in the
network.

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 Reliability
 Data transmitted are identical to data received.
 Measured by the frequency of failure
 The time it takes a link to recover from a failure
 Security
 Protecting data from unauthorized access

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Terminology

 The throughput or bandwidth of a channel is

the number of bits it can transfer per second

 The latency or delay of a channel is the time

that elapses between sending information and
the earliest possible reception of it

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Network topologies

 Topology defines the way hosts are

connected to the network

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Network topology issues

a goal of any topology

1. high throughput (bandwidth)

2. low latency

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Bandwidth and Latency
Bandwidth
1. telecommunications: range of radio frequencies: a range of radio
frequencies used in radio or telecommunications transmission and
reception
2. computing: communications capacity: the capacity of a
communications channel, for example, a connection to the Internet, often
measured in bits per second
3. a data transmission rate; the maximum amount of information
(bits/second) that can be transmitted along a channel

Latency
delay, is an expression of how much time it takes for transmission from
one designated point to another

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Type of Connection
 A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a
communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another.
 Point-to-Point
 A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire
capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most
point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two
ends, but other options,
 A multipoint
 (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two specific devices
share a single link

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Categories of Topology
Physical Topology
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically.:
two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology.
The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the
links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.

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mesh
 Mesh In a mesh topology, every device has a
dedicated point-to-point link to every other
device. The term dedicated means that the
link carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects.
Advantages over other network topologies
 dedicated links guarantees that each
connection can carry its own data load,
 a mesh topology is robust. If one link
becomes unusable, it does not disabled the
entire system
 there is the advantage of privacy or security
 point-to-point links make fault identification
and fault isolation easy

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star

 In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only

to a central controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not
directly linked to one another.
 a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The
controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to
another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data
to the other connected device
 include robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other
links remain active.
 easy fault identification and fault isolation.
 If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.
 less cable than a mesh
 The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs),

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bus
 A bus topology, on the other hand, is multipoint.
 One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network
 As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed into heat.
Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther and farther.
 Advantages
 ease of installation
 Backbone cable can be laid along the most efficient path,
 Disadvantages
 difficult reconnection and fault isolation
 Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality.
 Adding new devices may therefore require modification or replacement of the
backbone.
 a fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission,
 The damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of origin, creating noise in
both directions.
ring

 In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only
the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction,
from device to device, until it reaches its destination.
 Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
 A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure.
 fault isolation is simplified.
 Generally in a ring, a signal is circulating at all times.
 If one device does not receive a signal within a specified period, it can issue an
alarm. The alarm alerts the network operator to the problem and its location.
 Today, the need for higher-speed LANs has made this topology less popular

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Layering & Protocol Stacks

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Categories of Networks

 we are generally referring to two primary

categories:
 local-area networks and wide-area networks.
 The category into which a network falls is
determined by its size.
 A LAN normally covers an area less than 2
mi
 WAN can be worldwide.

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 Local Area Network
 A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and links the
devices in a single office, building, or campus
 a LAN can be as simple as two PCs and a printer in someone's
home office;
 Wide Area Network
 A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of
data, image, audio, and video information over large geographic
areas that may comprise a country, a continent, or even the whole
world.
 Metropolitan Area Networks
 A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size
between a LAN and a WAN. It normally covers the area inside a
town or a city.

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Protocol
 A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and
when it is communicated.
 protocols define format, order of msgs sent and received among network
entities, and actions taken on msg transmission, receipt

a human protocol and a computer network protocol:

time
Hi
TCP connection
req.
Hi
TCP connection
Got the reply.
time? Get http://gaia.cs.umass.edu/index.htm

2:00
<file>

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The key elements of a protocol are
syntax, semantics, and timing.
 Syntax. The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning
the order in which they are presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect
the first 8 bits of data to be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the
address of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the message itself.
 Semantics. The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of
bits. How is a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken
based on that interpretation? For example, does an address identify the route to be
taken or the final destination of the message?
 Timing. The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent
and how fast they can be sent.

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Standard

 Essential in creating and maintaining an open

and competitive market for equipment
manufacturers
 Guaranteeing national & international
interoperability of data & telecommunication
technology & process.

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Layered Tasks
An example from the everyday life

Hierarchy?
Services

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Why layered communication?

 To reduce complexity of communication task

by splitting it into several layered small tasks
 Functionality of the layers can be changed
 makes easier maintenance & updating

 Each layer has its own task

 Each layer has its own protocol

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Reference Models

 OSI reference model

 TCP/IP

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OSI Reference model
 Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational
body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards.
 The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate communication between
different systems
 7 layers

1. Crate a layer when different abstraction is needed

2. Each layer performs a well define function
3. Functions of the layers chosen taking internationally standardized
protocols
4. Number of layers – large enough to avoid complexity

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Seven layers of the OSI model

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Exchange using OSI Model

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Issues, to be resolved by the layers
 Larger bandwidth at lower cost
 Error correction
 Flow control
 Addressing
 Multiplexing
 Naming
 Congestion control
 Routing
 Fragmentation
 Security
 ....

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