Chapter 1: Introduction to

Statistics

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 Chapter Goals
• Create an initial image of the field of
statistics.
• Introduce several basic vocabulary words
used in studying statistics: population,
variable, statistic.
• Learn how to obtain sample data.
1.1: What is Statistics?
Statistics: The science of collecting,
describing, and interpreting data.

Two areas of statistics:

Descriptive Statistics: collection,
presentation, and description of sample data.
Inferential Statistics: making decisions and
drawing conclusions about populations.
Example: A recent study examined the math and verbal
SAT (Scholastic Aptitude test) scores of high school
seniors across the country. Which of the following
statements are descriptive in nature and which are
inferential.
• The mean math SAT score was 492.
• The mean verbal SAT score was 475.
• Students in the Northeast scored higher in math but lower
in verbal.
• 80% of all students taking the exam were headed for
college.
• 32% of the students scored above 610 on the verbal SAT.
• The math SAT scores are higher than they were 10 years
ago.
1.2 Introduction to Basic Terms
Population: A collection, or set, of
individuals or objects or events whose
properties are to be analyzed.
Two kinds of populations: finite or infinite.

Sample: A subset of the population.

Variable: A characteristic about each individual element
of a population or sample.
Data (singular): The value of the variable associated
with one element of a population or sample. This value
may be a number, a word, or a symbol.
Data (plural): The set of values collected for the variable
from each of the elements belonging to the sample.
Experiment: A planned activity whose results yield a set
of data.
Parameter: A numerical value summarizing all the data
of an entire population.
Statistic: A numerical value summarizing the sample
data.
Example: A college dean is interested in learning about the
average age of faculty. Identify the basic terms in this situation.

The population is the age of all faculty members at the college.

A sample is any subset of that population. For example, we might
select 10 faculty members and determine their age.
The variable is the “age” of each faculty member.
One data would be the age of a specific faculty member.
The data would be the set of values in the sample.
The experiment would be the method used to select the ages
forming the sample and determining the actual age of each faculty
member in the sample.
The parameter of interest is the “average” age of all faculty at the
college.
The statistic is the “average” age for all faculty in the sample.
Two kinds of variables:
Qualitative, or Attribute, or Categorical,
Variable: A variable that categorizes or describes
an element of a population.
Note: Arithmetic operations, such as addition and
averaging, are not meaningful for data resulting
from a qualitative variable.
Quantitative, or Numerical, Variable: A variable
that quantifies an element of a population.
Note: Arithmetic operations such as addition and
averaging, are meaningful for data resulting from
a quantitative variable.
Example: Identify each of the following examples as
attribute (qualitative) or numerical (quantitative) variables.

1. The residence hall for each student in a statistics class.

(Attribute)
2. The amount of gasoline pumped by the next 10
customers at the local Unimart. (Numerical)
3. The amount of radon in the basement of each of 25
homes in a new development. (Numerical)
4. The color of the baseball cap worn by each of 20
students. (Attribute)
5. The length of time to complete a mathematics homework
assignment. (Numerical)
6. The state in which each truck is registered when stopped
and inspected at a weigh station. (Attribute)
Qualitative and quantitative variables may be further
subdivided:

Nominal
Qualitative
Ordinal
Variable
Discrete
Quantitative
Continuous
Nominal Variable: A qualitative variable that
categorizes (or describes, or names) an element of a
population.
Ordinal Variable: A qualitative variable that
incorporates an ordered position, or ranking.
Discrete Variable: A quantitative variable that can
assume a countable number of values. Intuitively, a
discrete variable can assume values corresponding to
isolated points along a line interval. That is, there is a
gap between any two values.
Continuous Variable: A quantitative variable that can
assume an uncountable number of values. Intuitively, a
continuous variable can assume any value along a line
interval, including every possible value between any two
values.
Note:
1. In many cases, a discrete and continuous variable
may be distinguished by determining whether the
variables are related to a count or a measurement.
2. Discrete variables are usually associated with
counting. If the variable cannot be further
subdivided, it is a clue that you are probably
dealing with a discrete variable.
3. Continuous variables are usually associated with
measurements. The values of discrete variables
are only limited by your ability to measure them.
Example: Identify each of the following as examples of
qualitative or numerical variables:
1. The temperature in Barrow, Alaska at 12:00 pm on
any
given day.
2. The make of automobile driven by each faculty
member.
3. Whether or not a 6 volt lantern battery is defective.
4. The weight of a lead pencil.
5. The length of time billed for a long distance telephone
call.
6. The brand of cereal children eat for breakfast.
7. The type of book taken out of the library by an adult.
Example: Identify each of the following as examples of
(1) nominal, (2) ordinal, (3) discrete, or (4) continuous
variables:
1. The length of time until a pain reliever begins to work.
2. The number of chocolate chips in a cookie.
3. The number of colors used in a statistics textbook.
4. The brand of refrigerator in a home.
5. The overall satisfaction rating of a new car.
6. The number of files on a computer’s hard disk.
7. The pH level of the water in a swimming pool.
8. The number of staples in a stapler.
1.4: Data Collection
• First problem a statistician faces: how to
obtain the data.
• It is important to obtain good, or
representative, data.
• Inferences are made based on statistics
obtained from the data.
• Inferences can only be as good as the
data.
Biased Sampling Method: A sampling method that
produces data which systematically differs from the
sampled population. An unbiased sampling method
is one that is not biased.

Sampling methods that often result in biased samples:

1. Convenience sample: sample selected from
elements of a
population that are easily accessible.
2. Volunteer sample: sample collected from those
elements
of the population which chose to contribute the
needed
information on their own initiative.
Process of data collection:

1.Define the objectives of the survey or experiment.

Example: Estimate the average life of an electronic
component.
2.Define the variable and population of interest.
Example: Length of time for anesthesia to wear off
after surgery.
3.Defining the data-collection and data-measuring
schemes. This includes sampling procedures,
sample size, and the data-measuring device
(questionnaire, scale, ruler, etc.).
4.Determine the appropriate descriptive or inferential
data-analysis techniques.
Methods used to collect data:

Experiment: The investigator controls or modifies the

environment and observes the effect on the variable
under study.

Survey: Data are obtained by sampling some of the

population of interest. The investigator does not modify
the environment.

Census: A 100% survey. Every element of the

population is listed. Seldom used: difficult and time-
consuming to compile, and expensive.
Sampling Frame: A list of the elements belonging to
the population from which the sample will be drawn.

Note: It is important that the sampling frame be

representative of the population.

Sample Design: The process of selecting sample

elements from the sampling frame.

Note: There are many different types of sample

designs. Usually they all fit into two categories:
judgment samples and probability samples.
Judgment Samples: Samples that are selected on the
basis of being “typical.”

Items are selected that are representative of the

population. The validity of the results from a judgment
sample reflects the soundness of the collector’s
judgment.

Probability Samples: Samples in which the elements

to be selected are drawn on the basis of probability.
Each element in a population has a certain probability of
being selected as part of the sample.
Random Samples: A sample selected in such a way
that every element in the population has a equal
probability of being chosen. Equivalently, all samples of
size n have an equal chance of being selected. Random
samples are obtained either by sampling with
replacement from a finite population or by sampling
without replacement from an infinite population.

Note:
1. Inherent in the concept of randomness: the next result (or occurrence) is
not predictable.
2. Proper procedure for selecting a random sample: use a random number
generator or a table of random numbers.
Example: An employer is interested in the time it takes
each employee to commute to work each morning. A
random sample of 35 employees will be selected and
their commuting time will be recorded.

There are 2712 employees.

Each employee is numbered: 0001, 0002, 0003, etc. up
to 2712.
Using four-digit random numbers, a sample is identified:
1315, 0987, 1125, etc.
Systematic Sample: A sample in which every kth item
of the sampling frame is selected, starting from the first
element which is randomly selected from the first k
elements.

Note: The systematic technique is easy to execute.

However, it has some inherent dangers when the
sampling frame is repetitive or cyclical in nature. In
these situations the results may not approximate a
simple random sample.

Stratified Random Sample: A sample obtained by

stratifying the sampling frame and then selecting a fixed
number of items from each of the strata by means of a
simple random sampling technique.
Proportional Sample (or Quota Sample): A sample
obtained by stratifying the sampling frame and then
selecting a number of items in proportion to the size of
the strata (or by quota) from each strata by means of a
simple random sampling technique.

Cluster Sample: A sample obtained by stratifying the

sampling frame and then selecting some or all of the
items from some of, but not all, the strata.
 Correlational Studies
• The goal of a correlational study is to
determine whether there is a relationship
between two variables and to describe the
relationship.
• A correlational study simply observes the
two variables as they exist naturally.

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 Experiments
• The goal of an experiment is to
demonstrate a cause-and-effect
relationship between two variables; that is,
to show that changing the value of one
variable causes changes to occur in a
second variable.

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 Experiments (cont.)
• In an experiment, one variable is manipulated
to create treatment conditions. A second
variable is observed and measured to obtain
scores for a group of individuals in each of the
treatment conditions. The measurements are
then compared to see if there are differences
between treatment conditions. All other
variables are controlled to prevent them from
influencing the results.
• In an experiment, the manipulated variable is
called the independent variable and the
observed variable is the dependent variable.

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 Other Types of Studies
• Other types of research studies, know as
non-experimental or quasi-
experimental, are similar to experiments
because they also compare groups of
scores.
• These studies do not use a manipulated
variable to differentiate the groups.
Instead, the variable that differentiates the
groups is usually a pre-existing participant
variable (such as male/female) or a time
variable (such as before/after).
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 Other Types of Studies (cont.)
• Because these studies do not use the
manipulation and control of true
experiments, they cannot demonstrate
cause and effect relationships. As a
result, they are similar to correlational
research because they simply
demonstrate and describe relationships.

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 Data
• The measurements obtained in a research
study are called the data.
• The goal of statistics is to help researchers
organize and interpret the data.

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 Descriptive Statistics
• Descriptive statistics are methods for
organizing and summarizing data.
• For example, tables or graphs are used to
organize data, and descriptive values such
as the average score are used to
summarize data.
• A descriptive value for a population is
called a parameter and a descriptive
value for a sample is called a statistic.
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 Inferential Statistics
• Inferential statistics are methods for using
sample data to make general conclusions
(inferences) about populations.
• Because a sample is typically only a part of the
whole population, sample data provide only
limited information about the population. As a
result, sample statistics are generally imperfect
representatives of the corresponding population
parameters.

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 Sampling Error
• The discrepancy between a sample
statistic and its population parameter is
called sampling error.
• Defining and measuring sampling error is
a large part of inferential statistics.

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 Notation
• The individual measurements or scores obtained
for a research participant will be identified by the
letter X (or X and Y if there are multiple scores
for each individual).
• The number of scores in a data set will be
identified by N for a population or n for a sample.
• Summing a set of values is a common operation
in statistics and has its own notation. The Greek
letter sigma, Σ, will be used to stand for "the sum
of." For example, ΣX identifies the sum of the
scores.
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 Order of Operations
1. All calculations within parentheses are done
first.
2. Squaring or raising to other exponents is done
second.
3. Multiplying, and dividing are done third, and
should be completed in order from left to right.
4. Summation with the Σ notation is done next.
5. Any additional adding and subtracting is done
last and should be completed in order from left
to right.

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