Angle Measurements: Prepared By: Khiel S. Yumul BSGE-3

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The key takeaways are that angle measurements are important in surveying to locate objects in 3 dimensions. Horizontal length, difference in height, and angular direction need to be measured. There are different types of angles like horizontal, vertical and zenith angles.

The four types of meridians discussed are true, magnetic, grid, and assumed meridians.

Some common mistakes made in using azimuths and bearings include confusing reference systems, incorrect angle directions, interchanging azimuths and bearings, including angles greater than 90 degrees in bearings, omitting direction letters, and failing to adjust for closures in traverses.

Angle

Measurements
Prepared by: Khiel S. Yumul
BSGE-3
angle measurement
Measuring distances alone in surveying does not establish the location of an object. We need to
locate the object in 3 dimensions. To accomplish that we need:

Horizontal length (distance)


Difference in height (elevation)
Angular direction

 An angle is defined as the difference in direction


between two convergent lines.
 Horizontal angle is formed by the directions to two
objects in a horizontal plane.
 Vertical angle is formed by two intersecting lines in a
vertical plane, one of these lines horizontal.
 Zenith angle is the complementary angle to the vertical
angle and is formed by two intersecting lines in a
vertical plane, one of these lines directed toward the
zenith.
Basic requirements in determining an angle:
1. Direction of turning
2. Angular distance
3. Reference or starting line
Meridians
• True Meridians
• Magnetic Meridians
• Grid Meridians
• Assumed Meridians
The term "meridian" comes from the Latin
meridies, meaning "midday“.

The same Latin term gives rise to the


terms A.M. (Ante Meridian) and P.M.
Meridian (Post Meridian) used to disambiguate
The Direction of a line is usually defined hours of the day when using the 12- hour
by the horizontal angle it makes with a clock.
fixed reference line or direction.

In surveying, this is done with reference


to a meridian which lies in a vertical plane
passing through a fixed point of reference
and through the observer's position.
There are four types of meridians: true, magnetic, grid, and assumed.

Astronomical or True Meridians


Plane passing through a point on the surface of the earth and containing
the earth’s axis of rotation defines the astronomical or true meridian at that point.
Astronomical meridians are determined by observing the position of the sun or a
star. For a given point on the earth, its direction is always the same and therefore
directions referred to the astronomical or true meridian remain unchanged. This
makes it a good line of reference.
Magnetic Meridian
A magnetic meridian lies parallel with the magnetic lines of force of
the earth. The earth acts very much like a bar magnet with a north magnetic
pole located considerably south of the north pole defined by the earth’s
rotational axis. The magnetic pole is not fixed in position, but rather changes its
position continually. The direction of a magnetized needle defines the magnetic
meridian at that point at that time. Because the magnetic meridian changes as
magnetic north changes, magnetic meridians do not make good lines of
reference.
Grid Meridians
In plane surveys it is convenient to perform the work in a rectangular XY
coordinate system in which one central meridian coincides with a true
meridian. All remaining meridians are parallel to this central true meridian.
This eliminates the need to calculate the convergence of meridians when
determining positions of points in the system. The methods of plane surveying,
assume that all measurements are projected to a horizontal plane and that all
meridians are parallel straight lines. These are known as grid meridians. The
Oregon Coordinate System is a grid system.
Assumed Meridians
On certain types of localized surveying, it may not be necessary to establish a true, magnetic,
or grid direction. However it is usually desirable to have some basis for establishing relative
directions within the current survey. This may be done by establishing an assumed meridian.
An assumed meridian is an arbitrary direction assigned to some line in the survey from which
all other lines are referenced. This could be a line between two property monuments, the centerline
of a tangent piece of roadway, or even the line between two points set for that purpose. The
important point to remember about assumed meridians is that they have no relationship to any
other meridian and thus the survey cannot be readily (if at all) related to other survey
DESIGNATION OF NORTH POINTS
There is always a starting or reference point to define directions. Map users are primarily
concerned with the north point for the determination of directions and the following are the
commonly used reference points.
1. True North - is the north point of the true meridian. In maps and sketches, it is portrayed in the
direction of the actual location of the earth's north geographic pole and is always shown along a
vertical line . It is symbolized by a star, an asterisk, or the letters TN
2. Magnetic North - a north point that is established by means of a magnetized compass needle
when there are no local attractions affecting it. At any point on the earth's surface its direction is
indicated by the direction of the magnetic lines of force passing through the point at a particular
time. Magnetic north may be located either east or west of true north. The point is usually
symbolized by a half arrowhead or the letters MN
3. Grid North - a north point which is established by lines on a map which are parallel to a selected
central meridian. It may coincide with lines directed toward true north. Grid north may be
symbolized by a full arrowhead or the letters GN or Y.
4. Assumed North - is used to portray the location of any arbitrarily chosen north point. It may be
symbolized by a small blackened circle or the letters AN.
DESIGNATION OF NORTH POINTS
Units of Angular Measurement

• The most common angular units being employed in the United States and many other countries is the
Sexagesimal System. This system uses angular notation in increments of 60 by dividing the circle into
360 degrees; degrees into 60 minutes; and minutes into 60 seconds. (The circumference of circle is
divided into 360 parts of degrees: each degree is further divided into minutes and seconds)

• Sexagesimal (base-sixty) is a numeral system with sixty as the base. It originated with the ancient
Sumerians in the 2,000s BC, was transmitted to the Babylonians, and is still used in modified form
nowadays for measuring time, angles, and geographic coordinates.
Units of Angular Measurement
• The number 60, a highly composite number, has twelve factors—1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, 60—of which 2,
3, and 5 are prime. With so many factors, many fractions of sexagesimal numbers are simple. For example, an hour
can be divided evenly into segments of 30 minutes, 20 minutes, 15 minutes, etc. Sixty is the smallest number
divisible by every number from 1 to 6.

Therefore;
 1 circle = 360° = 21,600´ = 1,296,000
 1° = 60´ = 3600˝
 1´ = 60˝
Units of Angular Measurement
• In Europe:
 Centesimal System - The circumference of circles is divided into 400 parts called gon (previously
called grads)
 The grad is the unit of measure in the centesimal system. In
this. system the circumference of a circle is divided into 400
parts called grads . The grad is subdivided into l00
centesimal minutes and a centesimal minute is further
subdivided into 100 centesimal seconds.
 The symbols g, c and cc are used to denote grads,
centesimal l minutes, and centesimal seconds, respectively.
It will be noted that 200 grads is equal to 180 degrees. This
system is a decimal one which is of some advantage when
mathematical calculations are required.
Units of Angular Measurement
• Mil
The circumference is divided into 6400 parts, called mils, or 1600 mils is equal to 90 degrees. The
mil will subtend very nearly one linear unit in a distance of 1000 such units. It is commonly used in
military operations as in fire direction of artillery units
Units of Angular Measurement
• Radian
The radian is another measure of angles used frequently for a host of calculations. One radian is
defined as the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc length exactly equal to the radius of the
circle. One radian equals 180/pie or approximately 57.2958 degrees and, one degree equals pie/180 or
approximately O. 0174533 radians.

 The radian is sometimes referred to as the


natural unit of angle because there is no
arbitrary number in its definition. It is
used in computations such as determining
the length of circular arcs and where high
speed electronic digital computers are
used.
Sample Problems and Computation
1. Conversion of an Angle to Decimal Degrees
Convert the angle 238° 25’ 50” into its equivalent in decimal degrees. Angle =
238° 25’ 50” (Where: Deg =238°, Min= 25’, and Sec= 50” )

Decimal Equivalent = Deg + Min /60' + Sec /3600


= 238° + 25’ /60 + 50” /3600
= 238° + 0.4167° + 0.0139 °
= 238.4306°
Sample Problems and Computation
2. Conversion Of An Angle To Degrees, Minutes, And Seconds.
Convert to degrees, minutes, and seconds the decimal angle 325.7541667 degrees.
a) Deg = 325.7541667° (decimal degrees)
D = 325° ( Integral portion of the angle In degrees)
b) Min = (Deg - D) (60’ / deg)
= (325.7541667 ° - 325° ) (601 /deg)
= 45.250002’ ( decimal minutes)
M = 45’ (Integral portion of the angle In minute)
c) Sec . = (Min - M) (60”/min)
= (45.250002'- 45’ )(60”/min).
=.15.00012” (decimal seconds)
= 15" integral portion of the angle in seconds)
d) Therefore,· 325.7541667 = D + M + S = 325 ° 45'15"
Sample Problems and Computation

3. Conversion from Degrees to Grad ,Mils. and Radians


Convert 270° into its equivalent value. in grads ,mils, and radians.
a) Angle in Grads = 270o ( 400g / 360o = 300g
b) Angle in Mils = 27O° (64OOmils/36O°) = 4800 mils
c) Angle in Radians= 270° ( 2TT rad / 360 ° ) = 4.7124 radians
Sample Problems and Computation
4. Conversion from Grads to Degrees ,Mils, and Radians.
The value of an observed interior angle (A) in a closed traverse is 35O grads. Convert
the angle into its equivalent value in degrees, mils, and radians.

a). A’ = 350g (360o /400G)


= 315o (equivalent value of Angle A in degrees)
b.) A" = 350g ( 360°/400g )( 6400 mils/360o)
= 5600 mils (equivalent value of Angle A In mils)
c) A"' = 350g ( 360°/400g) (2TT Rad/ 360°
= 5.4978 radians (equivalent value at Angle A In radians)
types of horizontal angles
The types of horizontal angles most commonly observed in surveying are interior angles, angles to
the right, and deflection angles. Because they differ considerably, the kind used must be clearly indicated
in field notes.
 Interior angles are measured clockwise or counter-clockwise between two adjacent lines on the
inside of a closed polygon figure. Normally the angle at each apex within the polygon is measured. a
check can be made on their values because the sum of all interior angles in any polygon must equal
where n is the number of angles.
 Exterior angles are measured clockwise or counter-clockwise between two adjacent lines on the
outside of a closed polygon figure. located outside a closed polygon, are explements of interior
angles. The advantage to be gained by observing them is their use as another check, since the sum of
the interior and exterior angles at any station must total 360°.
 Deflection angles, right or left, are measured from an extension of the preceding course and the
ahead line. It must be noted when the deflection is right (R) or left (L). They are used principally on
the long linear alignments of route surveys. Deflection angles may be observed to the right
(clockwise) or to the left (counterclockwise) depending on the direction of the route
types of horizontal angles

 Angles to the right are turned from the back line in a clockwise or right
hand direction to the ahead line
 Angles to the left are turned from the back line in a counter-clock wise or
left hand direction to the ahead line
 Angles are normally measured with a transit or a theodolite, but a
compass may be used for reconnaissance work
Closed Polygon

(a) Clockwise interior (b) Counterclockwise


angles (angles to the interior angles (angles to
right). the left).

(c) Deflection angles.


types of horizontal angles
Bearings and Azimuths
The Relative directions of lines connecting survey points may be obtained
in a variety of ways:
 The figure below on the left shows lines intersecting at a point. The
direction of any line with respect to an adjacent line is given by the
horizontal angle between the 2 lines and the direction of rotation.
 The figure on the right shows the same system of lines but with all the angles
measured from a line of reference (O-M). The direction of any line with
respect to the line of reference is given by the angle between the lines and
its direction of rotation.
Azimuths
 The azimuth of a line on the ground is its horizontal angle measured from the meridian to the
line. Azimuth gives the direction of the line with respect to the meridian. It is usually measured
in a clockwise direction with respect to either the north meridian or the south meridian. In plane
surveying, azimuths are generally measured from the north.
 When using azimuths, one needs to designate whether the azimuth is from the north or the south.
 Azimuths are called true (astronomical) azimuths, magnetic azimuths, grid azimuths, or assumed
azimuths depending on the type of meridian referenced.
 Azimuths may have values between and 360 degrees.
 Azimuths are used advantageously in boundary, topographic, control, and other kinds of
surveys, as well as in computations.
Azimuths
A line’s forward direction can be given by its forward azimuth, and its reverse
direction by its back azimuth. In plane surveying, forward azimuths are converted
to back azimuths, and vice versa, by adding or subtracting 180°.
For example, if the azimuth of OA is 70°, the azimuth of AO is 70° + 180° =
250. If the azimuth of OC is 235°, the azimuth of CO is 235° - 180° = 55°.
Bearings
 Bearings are another systems for designating directions of lines.
 The bearing of a line is defined as the acute horizontal angle between a reference
meridian and the line.
 Measured from either the north or south toward the east or west, to give a reading
smaller than 90°.
 For example; N70°E, N30°W, S35°E, and S55°W
 The fact that bearing angles never exceed 90 degrees is an advantage when
extracting values of their trigonometric functions for use in computations.
Bearings
Quadrantal system for
defining bearings
FORWARD AND BACK BEARING

LINE FORWARD BEARING BACK BEARING


AB N 44° 38' E S 44° 39' W
BC S 42° 30' E N 42° 30' W
CD N 56° 50' E S 56° 50' W
DE S 18° 12' E N 18 ° 12' W
Sample Problems & Computations
Convert the following azimuths to bearings
OA =54°20’ OB.= 154°25’ OC =261°25’ OD = 312°38’

Solutions:
Figure (1) bearing of OA, ϴ =N 54°20’ E
Figure (2) bearing of OB, ϴ =180° - 154°25’
= S 25°35’ E
Figure(3) bearing of OC , ϴ =,261°25' - 180°
=S 81°25’ W
Figure (4) bearing of OD, ϴ =360° - 312°38’
=N 47°22’ W
Sample Problems & Computations
Compute the angles APB, CPD, and EPF from the following set of
lines whose azimuths are given.

Solutions:
a)
Solutions:
b)

c)
Compass and the
earth’s magnetic
field
The compass has been used by navigators and
others for many centuries.
Compass The surveyor's compass is an instrument for
determining difference in direction between
The compass is a handheld instrument for determining any horizontal line and a magnetic needle, the
the of a line with a reference to the magnetic meridian. needle pointing towards the magnetic north.
For many centuries the compass has been widely used
in navigation. In earlier land surveys and prior to the
Magnetic compasses, though of limited
invention of the transit, it was the only practical accuracy, have the advantage of giving reading
instrument for measuring directions and horizontal directly in terms of directions or bearings
angles. referred to magnetic north.

It is still employed for reconnaissance and preliminary Prismatic compasses can either be used
surveys, in timber cruising and exploratory surveys, in
independently or in conjunction with other
retracing old land surveys, and in obtaining rough
checks on angles or directions measured by more
angle measuring instruments in orienting a map
precise methods. or plane table and making a survey or traverse.
B
C B
D
Where,
A – Baseplate
B – Sight Vanes
C – Compass Box
A D – Level Vial

Surveyor’s Compass Compass Box


Principle of compass
The earth acts as a powerful magnet and like any magnet forms field of magnetic force
which exerts a directive action on a magnetized bar of steel or iron. A freely suspended
magnetic needle will align itself in a direction parallel to the lines of magnetic force of
the earth at that point and indicate the magnetic north.
Principle of compass
The imaginary line on the surface of the earth joining a point and the
true North and South geographical poles indicate the true north or
Astronomical North. The horizontal angle between true north and
magnetic north is known as declination.

The earth's magnetic force not only aligns a freely suspended


magnetic needle along magnetic north and south but also pulls or dips
one end of it below the horizontal position. The angle of dip varies
from 0° near the equator to 90° at the magnetic poles. To overcome
this dip a small weight is placed on one side of the needle so that it
can be adjusted until the needle is horizontal.
Magnetic Declination
Magnetic declination is the horizontal angle observed from the
geodetic meridian to the magnetic meridian. Navigators call this angle
variation of the compass; the armed forces use the term deviation.

An east declination exists if the magnetic meridian is east of geodetic


north; a west declination occurs if it is west of geodetic north. East
declinations are considered positive and west declinations negative. The
relationship between geodetic north, magnetic north, and magnetic
declination is given by the expression
Magnetic Declination

a) West or negative declination b) East or positive declination


SAMPLE PROBLEM AND
COMPUTATION
Magnetic Declination

A field is in the form of a regular pentagon. If the true bearing of


side AB is N 30o 30’ E, determine the true azimuth from south of the
following sides of the field: AB, BC, and CD. Assume that the corners of
the field are labeled in a clockwise direction.
Solutions:
a) Determining the Interior Angles
Sum = (n-2) 180° = (5- 2) 180"
A)
= 540° (sum of interior angle within the field

ϴ= Sum/n = 540/5
= 108° (since the field is a regular polygon, the
value of the interior angles ϴa , ϴb, ϴc, ϴd , and ϴe
are all equal)

B)
b) Determining True Bearing and True Azimuth of Side
AB
Given:
α = 30° 30’ (bearing angle of side AB)
λ = 180° + α = 180° + 30° 30’
= 210° 30’ (true azimuth from
south of side AB)
Solutions:
C) Determining True Bearing and True Azimuth of Side BC
Given:
C) α = 30° 30’ (bearing angle of side BA)
ϴ = 108° (Interior angle at corner B)

Ρ = ϴb - α = 108° - 30°30’
= 77°30’ (Therefore, the true bearing of side BC is S 77 ° 30’ E)
λ = 360o - Ρ = 360° - 77° 30’
= 282° 30’ (true azimuth from south of side BC)

D) Determining True Bearing and True Azimuth of Side CD


D) Given:
Ρ = 77°30’ (bearing angle of side CB)
ϴc = 108° (Interior angle at corner C)

α = Ρ + ϴc - 180° = 77° 30’ + 108° - 180°


= 5°30’ (Therefore, the true bearing of side CD is S 5° 30’ E)
λ = 360o - α = 360° - 5° 30’
= 354° 30’ (azimuth from south of side CD)
Mistakes
Some mistakes made in using azimuths and bearings are:
1. Confusing magnetic and other reference bearings.
2. Mixing clockwise and counterclockwise angles.
3. Interchanging bearings for azimuths.
4. Listing bearings with angular values greater than 90o.
5. Failing to include both directional letters when listing a bearing.
6. Failing to change bearing letters when using the back bearing of a line.
7. Using an angle at the wrong end of a line in computing bearings—that is, using
angle A instead of angle B when starting with line AB as a reference.
Mistakes
Some mistakes made in using azimuths and bearings are:
8. Not including the last angle to recompute the starting bearing or azimuth as a
check—for example, angle A in traverse ABCDEA.
9. Subtracting as though it were instead of or using 90° instead of 180° in bearing
computations.
10. Adopting an assumed reference line that is difficult to reproduce.
11. Reading degrees and decimals from a calculator as though they were degrees,
minutes, and seconds.
12. Failing to adjust traverse angles before computing bearings or azimuths if there
is a misclosure
Thank You
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