Structured Naming

Internet Naming Service: DNS*

 Overview
• Introduction to the DNS
• DNS Components
• DNS Structure and Hierarchy
• The DNS in Context
 The DNS is…
• The “Domain Name System”
• What Internet users use to reference
anything by name on the Internet
• The mechanism by which Internet software
translates names to attributes such as
addresses
 The DNS is also…
• A globally distributed, scalable, reliable database
• Comprised of three components
– A “name space”
– Servers making that name space available
– Resolvers (clients) which query the servers about the
name space
 DNS as a Lookup Mechanism
• Users generally prefer names to numbers

• Computers prefer numbers to names

• DNS provides the mapping between the two

– I have “x”, give me “y”
 DNS as a Database
• Keys to the database are “domain names”
– www.foo.com, 18.in-addr.arpa, 6.4.e164.arpa
• Over 200,000,000 domain names stored
• Each domain name contains one or more
attributes
– Known as “resource records”
• Each attribute individually retrievable
 Global Distribution
• Data is maintained locally, but retrievable
globally
– No single computer has all DNS data
• DNS lookups can be performed by any
device
• Remote DNS data is locally cachable to
improve performance
 Loose Coherency
• Each version of a subset of the database (a zone)
has a serial number
– The serial number is incremented on each database change
• Changes to the master copy of the database are
propagated to replicas according to timing set by
the zone administrator
• Cached data expires according to timeout set by
zone administrator
 Scalability
• No limit to the size of the database
• No limit to the number of queries
– Tens of thousands of queries handled easily
every second
• Queries distributed among masters, slaves,
and caches
 Reliability
• Data is replicated
– Data from master is copied to multiple slaves
• Clients can query
– Master server
– Any of the copies at slave servers
• Clients will typically query local caches
• DNS protocols can use either UDP or TCP
– If UDP, DNS protocol handles retransmission,
sequencing, etc.
 Dynamicity
• Database can be updated dynamically
– Add/delete/modify of any record
– Only master can be dynamically updated

• Modification of the master database triggers

replication
 Overview
• Introduction to the DNS
• DNS Components
– The name space
– The servers
– The resolvers
• DNS Structure and Hierarchy
• The DNS in Context
 The Name Space
• The name space is the structure of the DNS database
– An inverted tree with the root node at the top
• Each node has a label
– The root node has a null label, written as “”

T h e ro o t n o d e
""

t o p -le v e l n o d e t o p -le v e l n o d e t o p -le v e l n o d e

s e c o n d - le v e l n o d e s e c o n d - le v e l n o d e s e c o n d - le v e l n o d e s e c o n d - le v e l n o d e s e c o n d - le v e l n o d e

t h ir d -le v e l n o d e t h ir d -le v e l n o d e t h ir d -le v e l n o d e

 An Analogy – E.164
• Root node maintained by the ITU (International
Telecommunication Union) (call it “+”)
• Top level nodes = country codes (1, 81, etc)
• Second level nodes = regional codes (1-202, 81-3, etc.)
"+ "

... 1 81 ...

. .. 202 650 808 3 4 852

381 779 3489

6003 6003 5226 2024

 Labels
• Each node in the tree must have a
label
– A string of up to 63 bytes
""
– RFCs 852 and 1123 define legal
characters for “hostnames”
• A-Z, 0-9, and “-” only with a-z
and A-Z treated as the same t o p -1 t o p -2 t o p -3
• Sibling nodes must have unique
labels
• The null label is reserved for the
root node fo o fo o fo o a t& t bar baz
 Domain Names
• A domain name is the sequence of labels from a node to the root,
separated by dots (“.”s), read left to right
– The name space has a maximum depth of 127 levels
– Domain names are limited to 255 characters in length
• A node’s domain name identifies its position in the name space
""

com edu gov in t m il net o rg

n o m in u m m e ta in fo b e r k e le y nwu n a to a rm y uu

w est e a st w w w

d a k o ta to rn a d o
 Subdomains
• One domain is a subdomain of another if its
domain name ends in the other’s domain name
– So sales.nominum.com is a subdomain of
• nominum.com & com
– nominum.com is a subdomain of com
 Delegation
• Administrators can create subdomains to group hosts
– According to geography, organizational affiliation etc.

• An administrator of a domain can delegate responsibility

for managing a subdomain to someone else

• The parent domain retains links to the delegated

subdomains
 Delegation Creates Zones
• Each time an administrator delegates a subdomain,
a new unit of administration is created
– The subdomain and its parent domain can now be
administered independently
– These units are called zones
– The boundary between zones is a point of delegation in
the name space
• Delegation is good: it is the key to scalability
 Dividing a Domain into Zones
nominum.com
domain

"" nominum.com
zone

.a rp a .c o m .e d u
ams.nominum.com
rwc.nominum.com zone
zone acm ebw n o m in u m n e ts o l

rw c w w w ftp am s

m o lo k a i skye gouda cheddar

 Overview
• Introduction to the DNS
• DNS Components
– The name space
– The servers
– The resolvers
• DNS Structure and Hierarchy
• The DNS in Context
 Name Servers
• Name servers store information about the name
space in units called “zones”
– The name servers that load a complete zone are said to
“have authority for” or “be authoritative for” the zone
• Usually, more than one name server are
authoritative for the same zone
– This ensures redundancy and spreads the load
• Also, a single name server may be authoritative
for many zones
 Name Servers and Zones
128.8.10.5 serves Name Servers Zones
data for both
nominum.com
and isc.org zones 128.8.10.5
nominum.com
202.12.28.129
serves data for
nominum.com 202.12.28.129
zone only
isc.org

204.152.187.11
serves data for
204.152.187.11
isc.org zone only
 Types of Name Servers
• Two main types of servers
– Authoritative – maintains the data
• Master – where the data is edited
• Slave – where data is replicated to
– Caching – stores data obtained from an authoritative
server
• No special hardware necessary
 Name Server Architecture
• You can think of a name server as part of:
– database server, answering queries about the
parts of the name space it knows about (i.e., is
authoritative for),
– cache, temporarily storing data it learns from
other name servers, and
– agent, helping resolvers and other name servers
find data
 Name Server Architecture
Zone
From data
Name Server Process
disk file
Authoritative Data Master
Zone transfer server
(primary master and
slave zones)
Cache Data
(responses from
other name servers)
Agent
(looks up queries
on behalf of resolvers)
 Authoritative Data
Name Server Process
Authoritative Data
(primary master and
slave zones) Response

Cache Data
(responses from
other name servers)
Agent
(looks up queries Resolver
Query
on behalf of resolvers)
 Using Other Name Servers
Name Server Process
Authoritative Data
(primary master and
slave zones)
Response
Cache Data
Response
(responses from
Another
other name servers)
name
Agent Query server
(looks up queries Resolver
Query
on behalf of resolvers)
 Cached Data
Name Server Process
Authoritative Data
(primary master and
slave zones) Response

Cache Data
(responses from
other name servers)
Agent
(looks up queries Query Resolver

on behalf of resolvers)
 Overview
• Introduction to the DNS
• DNS Components
– The name space
– The servers
– The resolvers
• DNS Structure and Hierarchy
• The DNS in Context
 Name Resolution
• Name resolution is the process by which resolvers
and name servers cooperate to find data in the
name space
• Closure mechanism for DNS?
– Starting point: the names and IP addresses of the name
servers for the root zone (the “root name servers”)
– The root name servers know about the top-level zones
and can tell name servers whom to contact for all TLDs
 The Resolution Process
• Let’s look at the resolution process step-by-
step:

annie.west.sprockets.com

ping www.nominum.com.
 The Resolution Process
• The workstation annie asks its configured name
server, dakota, for www.nominum.com’s address

dakota.west.sprockets.com

What’s the IP address

of
www.nominum.com?

annie.west.sprockets.com

ping www.nominum.com.
 The Resolution Process
• The name server dakota asks a root name server, m, for
www.nominum.com’s address

m.root-servers.net
dakota.west.sprockets.com

What’s the IP address

of
www.nominum.com?

annie.west.sprockets.com

ping www.nominum.com.
 The Resolution Process
• The root server m refers dakota to the com name servers
• This type of response is called a “referral”

m.root-servers.net
dakota.west.sprockets.com Here’s a list of the
com name servers.
Ask one of them.

annie.west.sprockets.com

ping www.nominum.com.
 The Resolution Process
• The name server dakota asks a com name server, f,
for www.nominum.com’s address
What’s the IP address
of
www.nominum.com?

m.root-servers.net
dakota.west.sprockets.com

f.gtld-servers.net

annie.west.sprockets.com

ping www.nominum.com.
 The Resolution Process
• The com name server f refers dakota to the
nominum.com name servers
Here’s a list of the
nominum.com
name servers.
Ask one of them.
m.root-servers.net
dakota.west.sprockets.com

f.gtld-servers.net

annie.west.sprockets.com

ping www.nominum.com.
 The Resolution Process
• The name server dakota asks a nominum.com name server,
ns1.sanjose, for www.nominum.com’s address
What’s the IP address
of
www.nominum.com?

m.root-servers.net
dakota.west.sprockets.com

ns1.sanjose.nominum.net

f.gtld-servers.net

annie.west.sprockets.com

ping www.nominum.com.
 The Resolution Process
• The nominum.com name server ns1.sanjose
responds with www.nominum.com’s address

m.root-servers.net
dakota.west.sprockets.com

Here’s the IP ns1.sanjose.nominum.net

address for
www.nominum.com
f.gtld-servers.net

annie.west.sprockets.com

ping www.nominum.com.
 The Resolution Process
• The name server dakota responds to annie with
www.nominum.com’s address
Here’s the IP
address for
www.nominum.com

m.root-servers.net
dakota.west.sprockets.com

ns1.sanjose.nominum.net

f.gtld-servers.net

annie.west.sprockets.com

ping www.nominum.com.
 Resolution Process (Caching)
• After the previous query, the name server dakota now knows:
– The names and IP addresses of the com name servers
– The names and IP addresses of the nominum.com name servers
– The IP address of www.nominum.com
• Let’s look at the resolution process again

annie.west.sprockets.com

ping ftp.nominum.com.
 Resolution Process (Caching)
• The workstation annie asks its configured name
server, dakota, for ftp.nominum.com’s address

m.root-servers.net
dakota.west.sprockets.com

What’s the IP address ns1.sanjose.nominum.net

of ftp.nominum.com?

f.gtld-servers.net

annie.west.sprockets.com

ping ftp.nominum.com.
 Resolution Process (Caching)
• dakota has cached a NS record indicating ns1.sanjose is an
nominum.com name server, so it asks it for
ftp.nominum.com’s address
What’s the IP address
of ftp.nominum.com?

m.root-servers.net
dakota.west.sprockets.com

ns1.sanjose.nominum.net

f.gtld-servers.net

annie.west.sprockets.com

ping ftp.nominum.com.
 Resolution Process (Caching)
• The nominum.com name server ns1.sanjose
responds with ftp.nominum.com’s address

m.root-servers.net
dakota.west.sprockets.com

Here’s the IP
address for ns1.sanjose.nominum.net
ftp.nominum.com
f.gtld-servers.net

annie.west.sprockets.com

ping ftp.nominum.com.
 Resolution Process (Caching)
• The name server dakota responds to annie with
ftp.nominum.com’s address
Here’s the IP
address for
ftp.nominum.com

m.root-servers.net
dakota.west.sprockets.com

ns1.sanjose.nominum.net

f.gtld-servers.net

annie.west.sprockets.com

ping ftp.nominum.com.
 Iterative Name Resolution

• The principle of iterative name resolution.

 Recursive Name Resolution (1)
• The principle of recursive name resolution.
 Recursive Name Resolution (2)
Server for Should Passes to Receives Returns to
Looks up
node resolve child and caches requester

cs <ftp> #<ftp> -- -- #<ftp>

vu <cs,ftp> #<cs> <ftp> #<ftp> #<cs>

#<cs, ftp>

ni <vu,cs,ftp> #<vu> <cs,ftp> #<cs> #<vu>

#<cs,ftp> #<vu,cs>
#<vu,cs,ftp>
root <ni,vu,cs,ftp> #<nl> <vu,cs,ftp> #<vu> #<nl>
#<vu,cs> #<nl,vu>
#<vu,cs,ftp> #<nl,vu,cs>
#<nl,vu,cs,ftp>

• Recursive name resolution of <nl, vu, cs, ftp>. Name

servers cache intermediate results for subsequent lookups.
 Iterative versus Recursive
Resolution (1)

Performance-wise,
Which
How about
works betterwhich
communication is cost?
better?
with caching?
 Iterative versus Recursive
Resolution (2)
• Performance-wise, which is better?
– Recursive method puts higher performance demand
on each name server

• Which works better with caching?

– Recursive method works better with caching

• How about communication cost?

– Recursive method can reduce communication cost
 Iterative versus Recursive
Resolution (3)

• The comparison between recursive and iterative name

resolution with respect to communication costs.
 Overview
• Introduction to the DNS
• DNS Components
• DNS Structure and Hierarchy
• The DNS in Context
 DNS Structure and Hierarchy
• The DNS imposes no constraints on how the DNS
hierarchy is implemented except:
– A single root
– The label restrictions
– So, can we create a host with a name a.wonderful.world?
• If a site is not connected to the Internet, it can use any
domain hierarchy it chooses
– Can make up whatever TLDs (top level domains) you want
• Connecting to the Internet implies use of the existing
DNS hierarchy
Top-level Domain (TLD) Structure
• In 1983 (RFC 881), the idea was to have TLDs correspond
to network service providers
– e.g., ARPA, DDN, CSNET, etc.
• Bad idea: if your network changes, your name changes
• By 1984 (RFC 920), functional domains was established
– e.g., GOV for Government, COM for commercial, EDU for
education, etc.
• RFC 920 also
– Provided country domains
– Provided “Multiorganizations”
• Large, composed of other (particularly international) organizations
– Provided a stable TLD structure until 1996 or so
 The Current TLDs

"."

G e n e r ic T L D s C o u n try C o d e T L D s I n t e rn a t io n a l T L D s U S Legacy TLDs

(g T L D s ) (c c T L D s ) ( iT L D s ) (u s T L D s )

CO M A F IN T G O V
C o m m e r c i a l O r g a n iz a t i o n s A f g h a n is t a n I n t e r n a t io n a l T r e a t y O r g a n iz a t io n s G o v e r n m e n t a l O r g a n iz a t io n s

NET AL AR PA M IL
N e tw o rk In fra s tru c tu re A l b a n ia ( T r a n s it io n D e v ic e ) M ilit a r y O r g a n iz a t io n s

O RG D Z ED U
O t h e r O r g a n iz a tio n s A l g e r ia E d u c a t io n a l I n s t i t u t i o n s

. ..

YU
Y u g o s l a v ia

ZM
Z a m b ia

ZW
Z im b a b w e
 Registries, Registrars, and Registrants
• A classification of roles in the operation of a domain name space
• Registry
– the name space’s database
– the organization which has edit control of that database
– the organization which runs the authoritative name servers for that
name space
• Registrar
– the agent which submits change requests to the registry on behalf of
the registrant
• Registrant
– the entity which makes use of the domain name
 Registries, Registrars, and Registrants
Registry updates Master
zone updated

Registry Zone DB
Slaves
Registrar submits
updated
add/modify/delete
to registry

Registrar Registrar Registrar

End user requests

add/modify/delete

Registrants
Registrants
 Overview
• Introduction to the DNS
• DNS Components
• DNS Hierarchy
• The DNS in Context
 Load Concerns
• DNS can handle the load
– DNS root servers get approximately 3000
queries per second
• Empirical proofs (DDoS attacks) show root name
servers can handle 50,000 queries per second
– Limitation is network bandwidth, not the DNS protocol
– in-addr.arpa zone, which translates numbers to
names, gets about 2000 queries per second
 Performance Concerns
• DNS is a very lightweight protocol
– Simple query – response
• Any performance limitations are the result
of network limitations
– Speed of light
– Network congestion
– Switching/forwarding latencies
 Security Concerns
• Base DNS protocol (RFC 1034, 1035) is insecure
– DNS spoofing (cache poisoning) attacks are possible
• DNS Security Enhancements (DNSSEC, RFC
2565) remedies this flaw
– But creates new ones
• DoS attacks
• Amplification attacks
• DNSSEC strongly discourages large flat zones
– Hierarchy (delegation) is good
Questions?