Optimizing Central

Chilled Water Systems

Kent W. Peterson, P.E.
P2S Engineering, Inc.
“Everything should be as simple
as possible, but no simpler”
- Albert Einstein
 Foundation of Design

Goal - Deliver CHW to all loads under various load

conditions as efficiently as possible throughout
the year

Why look “outside the plant”?

– Understand how loads impact plant operation
– Understand how distribution system will operate
– Understand how temperature differential will be
effected by dynamics of system
Apply findings to chilled water system operation
 Chilled Water Plant Efficiency

Target kW/ton achievable in modern plants

(includes chillers, cooling towers and pumps)
– 0.5 - 0.7 Excellent
– 0.7 - 0.85 Good
– >1.0 Needs Improvement

Do you know how your plant is performing?

 Typical Facility Load Information
Chilled water required for each building is determined by
the building block cooling load
Central chiller plant loads depend on the actual
simultaneous load expected at the central plant
Central plant chilled water system load diversity for
multiple building facilities varies between 55-75%

Central Plant Peak Load

Diversity 
Sum of Bldg Block Loads
 Understanding Loads
Estimated annual load profiles must be
understood to design a chilled water system that
will meet your performance expectations
Valuable data to measure and trend
– Chilled water load profiles
– Anticipated load diversity
Know your facility central plant diversity
Usually 400-500 GSF/ton
 Understanding Hydronics
The pumping system will be required to operate
under various load conditions
Variable flow system differential pressures
throughout the system can be very dynamic
Hydronic system modeling should be used to
design or troubleshoot complex piping distribution
systems under various load conditions
 Purpose of Pumping Systems

Purpose is to move enough water through

system at a differential pressure that will
satisfy all connected loads

CAUTION - Over sizing pumps can cause

systems to not function as designed and
waste considerable energy
 Hydronic Fundamentals
Variable Flow System Dynamics

70

60
PRESSURE PSIG

50
45 PSID 38 PSID 12 PSID
40

30

20

10

0
PUMP CLOSE LOAD REMOTE LOAD

VFD
LOAD

LOAD
100 GPM 100 GPM
5 PSID 5 PSID
DP

5 PSID 5 PSID

28 PSID 2 PSID
 Hydronic Fundamentals
Variable Flow System Dynamics

CONTROL VALVE DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE

WITH VARIOUS LOAD CONDITIONS
ON CLOSE AHU

Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5

Full Flow 75% Flow 50% Flow 25% Flow 10% Flow

Branch Flow (gpm) 100 75 50 25 10

Branch ∆P 38 38 38 38 38

Coil ∆P 5.0 2.8 1.3 0.3 0.1

Balancing Valve ∆P 28.0 15.8 7.0 1.8 0.3
Control Valve ∆P 5.0 19.4 29.8 35.9 37.7
 Balancing Considerations
Variable Flow Systems

‘Too large a balancing valve pressure drop will

affect the performance and flow characteristic of
the control valve.’
– ASHRAE 2003 Applications Handbook, page 37.8

Options to Consider:
– No balancing valves, no balancing
– Automatic differential pressure control valves to control
differential pressure at close loads
– Pressure-independent control valves
Options NOT to Consider:
– Balancing valves at variable speed pumps
 Hydronic Pumping Conclusions

Coil heat transfer is easier to control in low head

(<50 ft head) systems
Remote, high head loads can be served more
efficiently with variable speed series booster
pumping
Looped systems can offer redundancy and
reduced differential pressure in mains
 CHW Temperature Differential

Lack of chilled water ∆T is the largest

contributor to poor chilled water plant
performance

To predict ∆T, you must know:

– Characteristics of cooling coils in system
– Control valve requirements and limitations
– Control valve control algorithms and setpoints
– Load characteristics on coil
 CHW Temperature Differential

Cooling Coil Characteristics T ONS x 24

GPM 
– Lower CHWS temperature will CHW R - CHWS
typically yield higher CHWR
temperature assuming load is
adequate
– Higher CHWS temperature will
typically yield lower CHWR
temperature
– CHWR temperature will begin to
lower when EAT gets close to
CHWR temperature
 Factors that Degrade ∆T
Assuming Coils Are Selected for Desired ∆T

– Air economizers and 100% OSA systems

– Excessive distribution differential pressure
– Higher CHWS temperature - collapsing ∆T
Account for heat gain on above grade piping
– Coil control valves (specify close-off pressure)
Not capable of controlling against differential pressure
3-way valves or 3-way converted to 2-way valves
– Controls not controlling
Supply air setpoint cannot be achieved
Valves not interlocked with AHU, out of calibration
– Improper coil selections
 ∆T Conclusions

Design, construction and operation errors that

cause low ∆T can be avoided
Other causes for low ∆T can never be eliminated
∆T degradation is inevitable, therefore, system
design must accommodate level of degradation
anticipated
 ∆T Selection

What is the optimum ∆T for chilled water and

condenser water systems?
There is no “optimum” ∆T for all systems,
however, the following guidelines can lead to an
answer:
– Select chillers at various ∆Ts and estimate life cycle
costs (12-20°F)
– If majority of chiller operating hours are at reduced
load, consider 2 gpm/ton on condenser water
 Understanding Refrigerant Lift

Lift = SCT – SST

– Saturated Condensing Temperature (SCT) is

dependent upon LEAVING condenser water
temperature
– Saturated Suction Temperature (SST) is based off
of LEAVING chilled water temperature
Lift Effect on Part Load Chiller Efficiencies
1.100

1.050

ECWT
1.000
85 deg F
80 deg F
0.950 70 deg F
60 deg F
0.900
KW/to n n

0.850

0.800

0.750

0.700

0.650

0.600

0.550
20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Chille r Pe rce nt Lo a d
 VFD Effect on Part Load Chiller Efficiencies
1.10

1.00

0.90

0.80

0.70
KW/ton

0.60

0.50

0.40

0.30

0.20
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Percent Chiller Load
 Chilled Water Plant Design
Optimize equipment sizing, selection and
operation to efficiently provide chilled water to
the loads under various load conditions
Consider maintenance when selecting and laying
out equipment
Select a plant configuration that best suits the
system requirements
Do not make control sequences too complicated
- the plant operator must understand the
sequences
 Chiller Selection

Pick a short list of vendors based on past

experience, local representation, etc.
Determine the functional and operational
requirements by assessing the cooling load and
load profiles including hours of operation
Estimate energy usage of options
Select system (chillers) based on lowest life
cycle cost considering capital costs, recurring
costs of operation including maintenance and
repairs
Primary-Secondary Variable Flow
Part Load Operation - 1500 Tons

DP

750 tons

Load

Load

750 tons

Load

Load
Off

Load

4000 GPM
VFD
Load
51° F 42° F

Secondary
42° F
Pumps LOAD
1600 GPM 1500 TONS

57° F

FM

2400 GPM
 Variable Primary Flow
TYPICAL Part Load Operation - 1500 Tons
DP

DP

750 tons
Auto isolation valves
preferred to dedicated pumps:
Load

• allows slow staging

• better redundancy
Load
• extends 1 pump operation
750 tons

Load

Load
Off

Load
2400 GPM

42° F Load
VFD

Primary Pumps
On VFDs 42° F LOAD
NO FLOW 1500 TONS

57° F 57° F

FM FM

2400 GPM 2400 GPM

Advantages of Variable Primary Flow

Lower First Costs

Less Plant Space Required
Reduced Pump Energy
– Higher efficiency pumps
– Reduced pressure drop due to fewer pump
connections, less piping
Variable Primary Flow Design Issues

Evaporator flow
– Typically minimum 3 fps extended
– Rate of change limits (usually maximum 30% per minute)
Complexity of control
– Not as fail-safe - what if bypass valve fails at low flow?
– Must avoid abrupt flow shut-off (e.g. valves interlocked with
AHUs all timed to stop at same time)
– Flow fluctuation when staging chillers on
CHW TES integration can be difficult
 Thermal Storage

Chilled water thermal storage is a viable means

of increasing chiller plant efficiencies to reduce
KW/ton of delivered chilled water
– Near full load operation during charge
– Ambient relief on tower to reduce condenser water
temperatures
– Reduction in peak chiller capacity requirement
Keep it simple
 Control Issues

Control strategies should consider impact on

complete system including HVAC systems
Control strategies should try to continually
optimize energy consumption for entire system
Reliable controls are essential
Remember to keep it as simple as possible
 Building Interface Considerations

Avoid chilled water tertiary loops whenever

possible
– Remember cooling coil fundamentals
A variable speed booster pump should be used
to boost differential pressure when required
 A Case for Metering

Most efficiently designed systems are horribly

inefficient after several years of operation
Do you really know how your systems are
operating?
How can we improve if we don’t monitor key
metrics?
Load and utility consumption data are essential
for efficient operations
 A Case for Commissioning

Commissioning is a systematic process of

assuring that a system performs in accordance
with the design intent and the owner’s
operational needs
Re-commissioning
 Summary

Start design process outside the plant

Understand parameters that affect chiller plant
and overall system performance
Right size your equipment to deliver CHW to all
loads under various load conditions as efficiently
as possible throughout the year
Commission plant
Optimize control sequences
 Energy Trend

World energy demand is forecasted to increase

170% from 2000 to 2030
– Electrical demand will double
– Fossil fuel will provide 90% of increase in demand
– Carbon dioxide emissions will increase 170%
Energy Efficiency is a Must
– What is our responsibility?
 For More Information

ASHRAE Self Directed Learning Course

“Fundamentals of Water System Design”
ASHRAE 2003 HVAC Systems and Equipment
Handbook
ASHRAE Transactions and Journal
Hydronic System Design & Operation by E.G.
Hansen
 Optimizing Central
Chilled Water Systems