Computer

Communications and
Networks
Introduction
(week 1)
By
Hafiz Aamir Hafeez
 Network

An interconnected collection of autonomous computers

interconnected = able to exchange information
 A set of nodes connected by media links
node = any device capable of sending / receiving data to/from other
nodes in the network
A connected collection of hardware and software that permits information
exchange and resource sharing.
• information = data, text, audio, video, images, …
• resources = printers, memory, link bandwidth, ...
Networks vary in

• Type: Ethernet, Cable TV, telephone network, Internet, cellular…

• Size: from a few computers close together, to a world-wide network

of networks containing millions of computers

• Technology: copper wire, coaxial cable, wireless, fibre optics…

• Technical issues: services offered, rules for inter-computer
communications, how users are charged for network use...
DATA COMMUNICATIONS

communication: we are sharing information.

Sharing can be:
 Local: Between individuals, local communication usually occurs face to face.
 Remote: takes place over distance.
The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by
the parties creating and using the data.
Data communications:
exchange of data between two devices
some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.
Data communications to occur: communicating devices must be part of a
communication system. combination of hardware and software.
Effectiveness of a data communications
system
Depends on four fundamental characteristics.
Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data
must be received by the intended device or user and only by that
device or user.
Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have
been altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data
delivered late are useless.
Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the
uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video packets.
Components of Network
 Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular
forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. e.g computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera.
Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message.
Transmission Medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which
a message travels from sender to receiver. e.g twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable,
fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It
represents an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a
protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating.
Data Flow
• Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or
full-duplex as shown in Figure
Data Flow
Simplex: communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two
devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive. Keyboards and traditional
monitors are examples of simplex devices.
Half-Duplex: Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex
mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions. half-duplex
transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the two
devices is transmitting at the time. Walkie-talkies is half-duplex systems.
Full-Duplex: Both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. The full-duplex
mode is like a two way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time.
One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When
two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same
time.
Criteria of Network
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these
are
1. Performance: Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and
response time.
Transit time: Amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another.
Response time: Elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
Performance of a network depends on;
 Number of users
 Type of transmission medium
 Capabilities of the connected hardware
 Efficiency of the software
Criteria of Network
2. Reliability: In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is
measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover
from a failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.
3. Security: Network security issues include protecting data from
unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and development,
and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches
and data losses.
Physical Structure

Types of connections: A network is two or more devices connected through links. A

link is a communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another.
For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some way to the
same link at the same time.
Types of connections:
1.Point-to-Point:
• provides a dedicated link between two devices.
• The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you are establishing a point-to-
point connection between the remote control and the television's control system.
2. Multipoint A multipoint (multidrop):
• Connection is one in which more than two specific devices share a single link In a
multipoint environment.
• The capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally.
• If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If
users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.
Categories of Topologies
The physical topology of a network is the actual geometric layout of
workstations. There are several common physical topologies, as
described below and as shown in the illustration.
Categories of Topologies
 Bus Topology: Every workstation is connected to a main cable called the bus, Therefore, in
effect, each workstation is directly connected to every other workstation in the network.
 Star Topolgy: There is a central computer or server to which all the workstations are directly
connected. Every workstation is indirectly connected to every other through the central
computer.
 Ring Topology: The workstations are connected in a closed loop configuration. Adjacent
pairs of workstations are directly connected. Other pairs of workstations are indirectly
connected, the data passing through one or more intermediate nodes.
 Mesh Topolgy:
Full mesh: Each workstation is connected directly to each of the others.
 Partial mesh: Some workstations are connected to all the others, and some are connected
only to those other nodes with which they exchange the most data.
Network Models
Computer networks are created by different entities. Standards are needed so
that these heterogeneous networks can communicate with one another. The
two best-known standards are the OSI model and the Internet model.
OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model: Seven-layered network
Internet model: five-layered network.
Categories of Networks: Two primary categories:
local-area networks: A LAN normally covers an area less than 2 mi.
Wide area network: A WAN can be worldwide.
Metropolitan area networks: Networks of a size in between are normally
referred to as metropolitan area networks and span tens of miles.
The Internet
The Internet is a computer network that interconnects hundreds of
millions of computing devices throughout the world.
Traditional desktop PCs, Linux workstations, and so-called servers
that store and transmit information such as Web pages and e-mail
messages.
Non-Traditional Internet end systems such as laptops, smartphones,
tablets, TVs, gaming consoles, Web cams, automobiles, environmental
sensing devices, picture frames, and home electrical and security
systems are being connected to the Internet.
In Internet jargon, all of these devices are called hosts or end systems.
The Internet
End systems are connected together by a network of communication
links and packet switches.
Different links can transmit data at different rates, with
transmutation rate of a link measured in bits/second.
One end system has data to send to another end system, the sending
end system segments the data and adds header bytes to each
segment. The resulting packages of information, known as packets.
Packet switches come in many shapes and flavours, but the two most
prominent types in today’s Internet are routers and link-layer
switches.
The Internet
End systems access the Internet through Internet Service Providers
(ISPs).
Each ISP is in itself a network of packet switches and communication
links. ISPs provide a variety of types of network access to the end
systems, including residential broadband access such as cable modem
or DSL.
• End systems, packet switches, and other pieces of the Internet run
protocols that control the sending and receiving of information within
the Internet.
The Internet
Two of the most important protocols;
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP).
The IP protocol specifies the format of the packets that are sent
and received among routers and end systems.
The Internet’s principal protocols are collectively known as TCP/IP.
Internet standards;
It is a thoroughly tested specification that is useful to and adhered to by those
who work with the Internet. It is a formalized regulation that must be followed.
There is a strict procedure by which a specification attains Internet standard
status.
Networking Model (TCP/IP)
The historical and technical standard of
the Internet is the TCP/IP model.
The U.S. Department of Defence created
the TCP/IP reference model, to design a
network that could survive any
conditions, including a nuclear war.
Networking Model (TCP/IP)
 Application layer handles issues of representation, encoding, and dialog
control.
 Transport layer deals with the quality of service issues of reliability, flow
control, and error correction.
 Internet layer is to divide TCP segments into packets and send them from
any network. Best path determination and packet switching occur at this
layer.
 Network Access layer (aka host-to-network layer) concerned with all
components, both physical and logical, that are required to make a physical
link .
Open Systems Interconnection
model (OSI Model)
 Reduces complexity
 Standardizes interfaces
 Facilitates modular engineering
 Ensures interoperable technology
 Accelerates evolution
 Simplifies teaching and learning
 The OSI reference model was released in 1984 to help network builders
implement networks that could communicate (interoperability).
 The OSI reference model is the primary model for network
communications.
 The process of moving information between computers is divided into
seven smaller and more manageable steps.
Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI
Model)
OSI Top 3 Layers
 Application
 provides network services to the user's applications

 file, print, message, database and application services

 HTTP, SMTP, FTP

 Presentation
 responsible for manipulating data’s appearance as needed by the Application layer

 Data encryption, compression and translation services

 JPEG, MIDI, QuickTime, EBCDIC to ASCII

 Session
 establish and maintain communication between two hosts

 Dialogue control
 NFS, SQL, RPC
OSI Lower 4 Layers
 Transport
 PDU (protocol data unit ) – Segment
 the transport layer establishes, maintains, and tears down virtual circuits
 Windowing

 TCP and UDP

 Network
 PDU - Packet
 Routing
 Data packets and route update packets

 connectivity and path selection between two hosts

 Data-Link
 PDU - Frame
 physical addressing, network topology, network access, error notification, ordered delivery of frames, and flow control

 Ethernet LCC and MAC layers

 Physical
 PDU – bits
 Cabling, standards