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CSC363-Artificial Intelligence
Week-7 Lecture-13
Semester#06
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Preamble

 Genetic Algorithm

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Search Methods

 Depth first search (DFS)

 Breadth first search (BFS)
 Iterative deepening depth-first search (IDS)
 Best first search
 Uniform cost search (UCS)
 Greedy search §
 A*
 Iterative Deepening A* (IDA*)
 Beam search
 Hill climbing

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Uniform Cost Search

 Uniform-cost search is a searching algorithm used for traversing a weighted tree or

graph.
 This algorithm comes into play when a different cost is available for each edge.
 The primary goal of the uniform-cost search is to find a path to the goal node which has
the lowest cumulative cost.

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Uniform Cost Search

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Uniform Cost Search

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Things worth mentioning:

->The creation of the tree is not a part of the algorithm. It is just for visualization.
->The algorithm returns the first path encountered. It does not search for all paths.
->The algorithm returns a path which is optimal in terms of cost.

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Uniform Cost Search

 Strategy: expand a cheapest node first:

 Fringe is a priority queue (priority: cumulative cost)
S 0
2 a G
c d 3 e 9 p 1
b
1 8 2
2 e e 5 h 17 r 11 q 16
3 d b 4 c
9 2 f 11
S h 8
1 Cost a 6 a h 13 r 7 p q f
1 p r contours
q
15 p q f 8 q c G

q 11 c G 10 a

a
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Algorithm

 Insert the root into the queue

While the queue is not empty
      Dequeue the maximum priority element from the queue
      (If priorities are same, alphabetically smaller path is chosen)
      If the path is ending in the goal state, print the path and exit
      Else
            Insert all the children of the dequeued element, with the cumulative costs as
priority

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Uniform Cost Search - Issues

 The good: UCS is complete and optimal!

 The bad:
 Explores options in every “direction”
 No information about goal location Start Goal
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 Depth-Limited Search Algorithm:

 A depth-limited search algorithm is similar to depth-first search with a predetermined

limit. Depth-limited search can solve the drawback of the infinite path in the Depth-first
search. In this algorithm, the node at the depth limit will treat as it has no successor nodes
further.
 Depth-limited search can be terminated with two Conditions of failure:
 Standard failure value: It indicates that problem does not have any solution.
 Cutoff failure value: It defines no solution for the problem within a given depth limit.

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Depth-Limited Search

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 Iterative deepening depth-first Search:

 The iterative deepening algorithm is a combination of DFS and BFS algorithms. This
search algorithm finds out the best depth limit and does it by gradually increasing the
limit until a goal is found.
 This algorithm performs depth-first search up to a certain "depth limit", and it keeps
increasing the depth limit after each iteration until the goal node is found.
 This Search algorithm combines the benefits of Breadth-first search's fast search and
depth-first search's memory efficiency.
 The iterative search algorithm is useful uninformed search when search space is large, and
depth of goal node is unknown.

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Iterative deepening depth-first

1'st Iteration-----> A
2'nd Iteration----> A, B, C
3'rd Iteration------>A, B, D, E, C, F, G
4'th Iteration------>A, B, D, H, I, E, C, F, K, G
In the fourth iteration, the algorithm will find the
goal node.

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Bidirectional Search Algorithm:

 Bidirectional search algorithm runs two simultaneous searches, one form initial state
called as forward-search and other from goal node called as backward-search, to
find the goal node. Bidirectional search replaces one single search graph with two
small subgraphs in which one starts the search from an initial vertex and other starts
from goal vertex. The search stops when these two graphs intersect each other.
 Bidirectional search can use search techniques such as BFS, DFS, DLS, etc.
 In bidirectional search, one should know the goal state in advance.

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Bidirectional Search

In the search tree, bidirectional search algorithm is

applied. This algorithm divides one graph/tree into
two sub-graphs. It starts traversing from node 1 in
the forward direction and starts from goal node 16
in the backward direction.
The algorithm terminates at node 9 where two
searches meet.

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Next Lesson Preview

 Adversarial Search

 Games

 Optimal decisions in games

 Alpha-Beta Pruning

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References

 To cover this topic, different reference material has been used for consultation.

 Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach by Stuart J. Russell and Peter Norvig, 3 rd edition,

2010.

 Google search engine

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