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ENGLISH LINGUISTICS 2
MODULE 1
01 Subordination & Coordination
02 Indicators of subordination
CONTENTS Structural classification
03 of subordinate clauses
04 Nominal clause
01
Subordination
&
Coordination
≥ 2 sentences
Subordination Coordination
Complex sentence Compound sentence
Subordination Coordination
Main clause + Subordinator + Dependent Clause ,+ Coordinator + Clause
clause
Subordinator Coordinator
I like her because she likes me. I like her, for she likes me.
Main clause Dependent clause Clause Clause
02
Indicators of subordination
2.1 Subordinators
2.2. Wh-elements
2.3 The optional use of subordinators
2.4. The absence of subordinators
2.1 Subordinators
The most important formal indicators of subordination.
Simple subordinators: after, although, though, as,
before, if, once, since, that, unless, until, while, when,..
Compound subordinators
• Ending with that: in that, so that, such that, except that, in order that,
Ex: I went on a diet so that my weigh was decreased.
• Ending with optional that: now that, providing that, supposing that,
considering that, seeing that
Ex: He’s welcome to come along, provided that he behaves himself.
• Ending with as: as far as, as long as, as soon as, so long as,..
Ex: As long as you love me, I’ll give you my life.
• Ending with than: sooner than, rather than,…
• Others: as if, as though, in case,…
Correlative subordinators:
- so…that
- more/less…than...
- hardly…when...
- no sooner…than
- the…the,..
2.2. Wh-elements
Ex: Who did this should admit it?
The beautiful girl is walking with her pet.
(Dependent clause = S)
-Initial markers of subordination in dependent interrogative clause.
- Can function as or within one of the clause elements subjects, objects,
complements or adverbials.
Ex: Mr Green asked me how far it was from the post-office to that company.
We know that he has come to the party.
(Dependent clause=O)
Ex: Our concern is whether or not the government impose taxes on road users.
or: He became the best student.
(Dependent clause=C)
2.3. The optional use of subordinators
A few cases in which subordinators may be omitted without any
change of meaning in the whole sentence
+ Finite clauses in nominal function. (may or may not have “that”)
Ex: I think(that) the cause of environmental pollution is human’s consciousness.
+ Non-finite clauses of reason with or without because/as/since.
Ex: (Because/As/since) not having heard from him, we must assume he isn’t coming.
+ Non-finite clause of time with or without “after”
Ex: (After) having finished the mid-term texts, we had a short holiday.
2.4. The absence of subordinators
Not used to combine clauses within a complex sentence.
Ex: Had I do that exercises, I wouldn’t have failed the final exam.
(inversion with finite clause)
Ex: The answer is correct, I suppose.
(comment clause)
Ex: We know the model just ate an apple for her dinner.
(finite clause in nominal function)
03
Structural classification of
subordinate clauses
3.1. Finite clauses
3.2. Non – finite clauses
3.3. Verbless clauses
3.1. Finite clauses
- A finite clause is a clause whose verb element is a finite verb phrase
- Contains: a subject and the predicate except in the case of command
and ellipsis
- In other words, in the finite clause, there is always an agreement
between the subject and the verb
Ex: They suspect that Kate broke the dish
Although he is over eighty, he is still very active
3.2. Non – finite clauses
- A non-finite clause is a clause whose verb element is a non-finite verb
phrase
- The non-finite clause can be constructed with or without a subject,
there is no agreement between the subject and the verb
The four classes of non-finite verb phrase serve to
distinguish four classes of non-finite clause
CONSTRUCTION EXAMPLE VERB- FORM
To- infinitival Liz wants to write a novel. plain form
Bare infinitival Liz might write a novel. plain form
Gerund- participial Liz dreams of writing a novel. gerund participle
Past participial Liz has written a novel. past participle
3.3. Verbless clause
- We can usually infer ellipsis of the verb “be”. The subject,
when omitted, can be treated as recoverable from the context
- Although willing to lend a hand, he’s never around when you
actually need help. ( Although he is willing)
- Without hope, he staggered on. ( Without having hope)
04
Nominal clauses
• That clauses
1
• Wh-interrogative
2 clauses
Definition:
A nominal clause is a group of words with a conjugated verb in it
that acts as a noun.
A nominal clause starts with words like that, the fact
that, whether, when, and any other subordinating conjunctions.
Nominal clauses can be realized as :
+) That clauses
+) Wh-interrogative clauses
+) Y/N interrogative clauses
+) Nominal relative clause
+) To infinitive nominal clauses
+) Nominal -ing clauses
+) Bare infinitive nominal clause
- That clauses can occur as subject, direct object, subject
complement, appositive and adjective complement of the
superordinary clauses
- It can not be occur as prepositional complement or as object
complement
- Subject: That he gave a false name showed that he was doing
something dishonest.
- Direct object: I know that she hates me.
- Subject complement: My hope is that things will improve.
- Appositive: I had the feeling that somebody was following me.
- Adjectival complement: I’m afraid that we are in the wrong
direction.
• (-) Caution: When it function as a complement , that is frequently
omitted in informal use, leaving a “zero” that clause. However, when
the clause is subject and not extraposed , that can not omitted and is
usually expanded to the fact that, except in very formal English
• Example : ( The fact) that she is still alive consoles me.
• Wrong : She is still alive consoles me.
Exercise:
• What is important is that she is safe.
• I know that there are things that never have been funny, and never
will be. And I know that ridicule may be a shield, but it is not a
weapon.
• A Colorado study found that the average homeless person cost the
state forty-three
• thousand dollars a year, while housing that person would cost just
seventeen thousand dollars.
4.1.2. Wh- interrogative clauses
The Wh- interrogative clauses occurs in the whole range of functions available
to the that clause, and in addition, can act as prepositional complement.
+) Subject:
Example: What he has done is a mystery.
+) Direct object:
Example: I am wondering why she left me
+) Appositive:
Example: My initial question is not who will go, but who will stay.
+) Adjectival complement:
Example: I’m not sure where she hid the savings.
+) Prepositional complement:
Example: Deciding on what should be done can be difficult.
- Apart from the absence of subject- operator inversion, these Wh- interrogative
clauses resemble wh- question in that the wh- element is placed first. As regards
meaning, thay leave a gap of unknown information, represented by the wh-
element. Compare the negative and interrogative with the declarative in the
following .
I am not sure who is coming.
Do you know who is coming ?
- We have , in the Wh-interrogative clauses, the same choice between initial and
final preposition where prepositional complement is the wh- element.
Ex: He couldn’t remember on which shelf he kept it. ( formal)
He couldn’t remember which shelf he kept it on.
- An infinitive wh-clause can be formed with all wh -words except why
Ex: He was explaining how to start the motor.
I never know where to put my coat.
