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Chapter3 Solving Problems by Searching and Constraint Satisfaction Problem

1. This document discusses problem solving by searching and constraint satisfaction problems. It covers goal formulation, problem formulation, search strategies, and avoiding repeated states. 2. An example problem of traveling between cities in Romania is used to illustrate goal formulation, defining the relevant states and actions, and finding a solution path. 3. Toy problems like the 8-puzzle and 8-queens are presented to demonstrate different problem formulations and how the formulation affects the size of the search space.

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Rinesh Sahadevan
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143 views43 pages

Chapter3 Solving Problems by Searching and Constraint Satisfaction Problem

1. This document discusses problem solving by searching and constraint satisfaction problems. It covers goal formulation, problem formulation, search strategies, and avoiding repeated states. 2. An example problem of traveling between cities in Romania is used to illustrate goal formulation, defining the relevant states and actions, and finding a solution path. 3. Toy problems like the 8-puzzle and 8-queens are presented to demonstrate different problem formulations and how the formulation affects the size of the search space.

Uploaded by

Rinesh Sahadevan
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Chapter 3:Solving Problems by Searching

and Constraint Satisfaction Problem

By RINESH S
Contents
• Problem Solving by Searching
• Problem Solving Agents
• Problem Formulation
• Search Strategies
• Avoiding Repeated States
• Constraint Satisfaction Search
Solving Problems by Searching
• Reflex agent is simple
– base their actions on
– a direct mapping from states to actions
– but cannot work well in environments
• which this mapping would be too large to store
• and would take too long to learn
• Hence, goal-based agent is used
Problem-solving agent
• Problem-solving agent
– A kind of goal-based agent
– It solves problem by
• finding sequences of actions that lead to desirable
states (goals)
– To solve a problem,
• the first step is the goal formulation, based on the
current situation
Goal formulation
• The goal is formulated
– as a set of world states, in which the goal is
satisfied
• Reaching from initial state  goal state
– Actions are required
• Actions are the operators
– causing transitions between world states
– Actions should be abstract enough at a certain
degree, instead of very detailed
– E.g., turn left VS turn left 30 degree, etc.
Problem formulation
• The process of deciding
– what actions and states to consider
• E.g., driving Amman  Zarqa
– in-between states and actions defined
– States: Some places in Amman & Zarqa
– Actions: Turn left, Turn right, go straight,
accelerate & brake, etc.
Search Strategies
problem
• Start
• Find out all (n -1)! Possible solutions, where n
is the total number of cities. Determine the
minimum cost by finding out the cost of each
of these (n -1)! solutions. Finally, keep the one
with the minimum cost.
• end
Problem-Solving Agents
• agents whose task is to solve a particular problem
(steps)
– goal formulation
• what is the goal state
• what are important characteristics of the goal state
• how does the agent know that it has reached the goal
• are there several possible goal states
– are they equal or are some more preferable
– problem formulation
• what are the possible states of the world relevant for solving the
problem
• what information is accessible to the agent
• how can the agent progress from state to state
Example
From our Example
1. Formulate Goal

- Be In Amman

2. Formulate Problem

- States : Cities
- actions : Drive Between Cities

3. Find Solution

- Sequence of Cities : ajlun – Jarash - Amman


Our Example

1. Problem : To Go from Ajlun to Amman

2. Initial State : Ajlween

3. Operator : Go from One City To another .

4. State Space : {Jarash , Salat , irbed,……..}

5. Goal Test : are the agent in Amman.

6. Path Cost Function : Get The Cost From The Map.

7. Solution : { {Aj  Ja  Ir  Ma  Za  Am} , {Aj Ir  Ma  Za  Am} …. {Aj  Ja  Am} }


8. State Set Space : {Ajlun  Jarash  Amman}
Example: Romania
• On holiday in Romania; currently in Arad.
• Flight leaves tomorrow from Bucharest

• Formulate goal:
• be in Bucharest
–
• Formulate problem:
– states: various cities
– actions: drive between cities

• Find solution:
• sequence of cities, e.g., Arad, Sibiu, Fagaras, Bucharest
–
Example: Romania
Single-state problem formulation
A problem is defined by four items:
initial state e.g., "at Arad"
1. actions or successor function S(x) = set of action–state pairs
– e.g., S(Arad) = {<Arad  Zerind, Zerind>, … }

2. goal test, can be


– explicit, e.g., x = "at Bucharest"
– implicit, e.g., Checkmate(x)

3. path cost (additive)


– e.g., sum of distances, number of actions executed, etc.
– c(x,a,y) is the step cost, assumed to be ≥ 0

• A solution is a sequence of actions leading from the initial state to a goal


state
Example problems
• Toy problems
– those intended to illustrate or exercise various
problem-solving methods
– E.g., puzzle, chess, etc.
• Real-world problems
– tend to be more difficult and whose solutions
people actually care about
– E.g., Design, planning, etc.
Toy problems
• Example: vacuum world
Number of states: 8
Initial state: Any
Number of actions: 4
 left, right, suck,
noOp
Goal: clean up all dirt
 Goal states: {7, 8}

 Path Cost:
 Each step costs 1
The 8-puzzle
The 8-puzzle
• States:
– a state description specifies the location of each of the
eight tiles and blank in one of the nine squares
• Initial State:
– Any state in state space
• Successor function:
– the blank moves Left, Right, Up, or Down
• Goal test:
– current state matches the goal configuration
• Path cost:
– each step costs 1, so the path cost is just the length of
the path
The 8-queens
• There are two ways to formulate the
problem
• All of them have the common followings:
– Goal test: 8 queens on board, not attacking to
each other
– Path cost: zero
The 8-queens

• (1) Incremental formulation


– involves operators that augment the state
description starting from an empty state
– Each action adds a queen to the state
– States:
• any arrangement of 0 to 8 queens on board
– Successor function:
• add a queen to any empty square
The 8-queens
• (2) Complete-state formulation
– starts with all 8 queens on the board
– move the queens individually around
– States:
• any arrangement of 8 queens, one per column in the
leftmost columns
– Operators: move an attacked queen to a row, not
attacked by any other
The 8-queens
• Conclusion:
– the right formulation makes a big difference to
the size of the search space
Avoiding repeated states
• for all search strategies
– There is possibility of expanding states
• that have already been encountered and expanded
before, on some other path
– may cause the path to be infinite  loop forever
– Algorithms that forget their history
• are doomed to repeat it
Avoiding repeated states
• Three ways to deal with this possibility
– Do not return to the state it just came from
• Refuse generation of any successor same as its parent
state
– Do not create paths with cycles
• Refuse generation of any successor same as its ancestor
states
– Do not generate any generated state
• Not only its ancestor states, but also all other expanded
states have to be checked against
Constraint Satisfaction Search

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