Analog Electronics

Lecture 7

Op-amp Circuits and Active Filters

Muhammad Amir Yousaf

 Lecture:

 How to compare an analog signal with certain voltage level.

 Comparing a noisy signal with certain (reference) level.
 Binding an signal to fixed +/- max levels.
 Analog to digital converters with comparators.
 Adding two analog signals.
 Adding weighted signals.
 Averaging on analog signals.
 Digital to Analog Converter with weighted additions.
 Integrating an analog waveform.
 Differentiating analog waveform.
 Logarithm on analog signal.
 Antilog of analog signal.
 Multiplying and diving analog signals.
 Converters.
 Peak Detectors.
 Filters.
Comparators
 A comparator is a specialized nonlinear op-amp circuit that compares two
input voltages and produces an output state that indicates which one is greater.
 Because of the high open-loop voltage gain, a very small difference voltage
between the two inputs drives the amplifier into saturation.

Zero Level Detection:

Comparators
Non-Zero Level Detection:
Noise on Comparator

Noise contaminated signal may cause an unstable output.

Comparator with Hysteresis
To avoid this, hysteresis can be used.

Hysteresis is incorporated by adding regenerative (positive) feedback, which

creates two switching points:
The upper trigger point (UTP) and the lower trigger point (LTP).
After one trigger point is crossed, it becomes inactive and the other one
becomes active.

VUTP

Vin 0 t

VLTP

+Vout(max)

–Vout(max)
 Output Bounding

Some applications require a limit to the output of the

comparator (such as a digital circuit). The output can be
limited by using one or two Zener diodes in the feedback
circuit.

The circuit shown here is bounded as a positive value equal to

the zener breakdown voltage.

Vin Ri
– +VZ
0V
0
–0.7 V
+
Comparator Applications

 Flash analog-to-digital converters use VREF

2n-1 comparators to convert an analog R

Op-amp
comparators
Vin
input to a digital value of n bits for (analog)
+
–
processing. R
+
–
Priority
R
 Flash ADCs are a series of +
–
(7)
encoder

comparators, each with a slightly R

(6)
(5) D2
different reference voltage. +
–
(4)
(3)
D1
D0
Binary
output
(2)
R (1)
+
(0)
–
 The priority encoder produces an output
R
equal to the highest value input. +
Enable
input
–

R
+
–

R
 Summing Amplifier

A summing amplifier has two or more inputs; normally all inputs have
unity gain. The output is proportional to the negative of the algebraic
sum of the inputs.
 Example

Summing Amplifier

What is VOUT if the input voltages are +5.0 V, -3.5 V and +4.2 V and all
resistors = 10 kW?

Rf
R1
VIN1
10 kW
VOUT = -(VIN1 + VIN2 + VIN3) R2
VIN2 –

= -(+5.0 V - 3.5 V + 4.2 V) VIN3

R3 VOUT
+
= -5.7 V
Averaging Amplifier

An averaging amplifier is basically a summing amplifier with the gain

set to Rf /R = 1/n (n is the number of inputs). The output is the negative
average of the inputs.

What is VOUT if the input voltages are +5.0 V, -3.5 V and +4.2 V? Assume
R1 = R2 = R3 = 10 kW and Rf = 3.3 kW?
Rf
R1
VIN1
3.3 kW
R2
VIN2 –
VOUT = -⅓(VIN1 + VIN2 + VIN3) R3 VOUT
VIN3
= -⅓(+5.0 V - 3.5 V + 4.2 V) +

= -1.9 V
 Scaling Adder

A scaling adder has two or more inputs with each input having a different
gain.

Rf
R1
VIN1
R2
VIN2 –
R3 VOUT
VIN3
+
 Scaling Adder: D/A Converter

An application of a scaling adder is the D/A converter circuit shown here. The
resistors are inversely proportional to the binary column weights. Because of the
precision required of resistors, the method is useful only for small DACs.

+V 8R

20 Rf
4R

21
–
2R
VOUT
2
2
+
R

23
 The Integrator

An op-amp integrator simulates mathematical IC C

integration, a summing process that determines total
area under curve. Vin
R
–
Vout
dQ dV Ii +
I  C.
dt dt dVout 1 Vin Ideal
 .
dt RC Integrator
Ii   If

Vin dVout   Vout

 C.
R dt

The ideal integrator is an inverting amplifier that

has a capacitor in the feedback path. The output
voltage is proportional to the negative integral
(running sum) of the input voltage.
The Integrator

Capacitor in the ideal integrator’s feedback is

Rf
open to dc.
This implies open loop gain with dc offset. C

That would lead to saturation. Vin

R
–

The practical integrator overcomes these Vout

+
issues– the simplest method is to add a Practical
relatively large feedback resistor. Integrator
Rf should be large enough
 The Differentiator R

C
Vin
An op-amp differentiator simulates mathematical –
Vout
differentiation, a process to determine instantaneous +
rate of change of a function. Ideal
Differentiator

The ideal differentiator is an inverting amplifier that has a capacitor in the input
path. The output voltage is proportional to the negative rate of change of the input
voltage.

  I

Ii   If
𝑑𝑉 𝑖𝑛 𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐶  . =−
𝑑𝑡 𝑅

=  -RC.
 Instrumentation Amplifiers
An instrumentation amplifier (IA) amplifies the voltage difference
between its terminals.
It is optimized for amplifying small differential signals that may be
riding on a large common mode voltages.

o High input impedance

o High CMMR Input 1 +
R3 R5
A1
o Low output offset
Gain set –
R1
o Low output impedance –
R2 A3 Output
+
Gain set – R4
A2
Input 2 + R6
 Instrumentation Amplifiers
IC of instrumentation amplifier is made up of three op amps and several
resistors.

The gain is set by a

single resistor that is
supplied by the user. + Vcm
Vin1Input +
1 R3 R5
A1
Gain set –
R1
The output voltage is the –
closed loop gain set by RG R2 A3 Output

RG multiplied by the Gain set –

+
R4
voltage difference in the A2 V out = A cl ( V in2 - V in1 )
inputs. + Vcm
Vin2Input 2 + R6
Instrumentation Amplifiers (IA)

Applications:

o Used where a quantity is sensed by

a remote sensor e.g. temperature,
pressure transducer and sensed
signal is sent over a long line.
o Electrical noise produces common-mode voltages in the
line.
o IA at the end of line amplifies only the small differential
signal and reject the common mode signal
 Example

Instrumentation Amplifiers

An IA that is based on the three op-amp design is the AD622.

The formula for choosing RG is:
50.5 k
RG 
Av  1 +V

(7)
(3)
+IN
What value of RG will set the (1)
(6)
gain to 35? RG
(8)
AD622 Output
(5)
REF
(2) (Output signal
–IN
common)
50.5 k 50.5 k
RG   (4)
Av  1 35  1
–V
= 1.5 kW
 The Logarithmic Amplifier
 A logarithmic (log) amplifier produces an output that
is proportional to the logarithm of the input

Log and antilog amplifiers are used in applications that require:

o Compression of analog input data.
o Linearization of transducers that have exponential outputs.
o Analog multiplication and division, etc
The Logarithmic Amplifier
The Logarithmic Amplifier

A semiconductor pn-junction in the form of either a diode or the base-

emitter junction of a BJT provides a logarithmic characteristic.

Voltage across the diode is proportional to the log of the current in the
diode. Compare data for an actual diode on linear and logarithmic
plots:
The Logarithmic Amplifier
When a diode is placed in the feedback path of an inverting op-amp,
the output voltage is proportional to the log of the input voltage. The
gain decreases with increasing input voltage; therefore the amplifier is
said to compress signals. I
in I F
Vin
+V –
R1 F
0V
–
Op-amp Vout
+

Many sensors, particularly photo-

sensors, have a very large dynamic
range outputs. Current from
photodiodes can range over 5 decades.
A log amp will amplify the small
current more than the larger current to
effectively compress the data for further
processing.
 Example

The Logarithmic Amplifier

For the circuit shown, the equation for Vout is
Vin
Vout    0.025 V  ln (IR is a constant for a given diode.)
I R R1

What is Vout? (Assume IR = 50 nA.) Vin

Iin
R 1
IF
Vin
+11 V ++ V ––
1.0R1kW VFF
0V
––
11 V
Vout    0.025 V  ln Op-amp
Op-amp VVout
out
 50 nA   1.0 k  ++

= -307 mV
The Antilog Amplifier
The antilogarithm of a number is the result obtained when the base is raised
to a power equal to the logarithm of that number.

  x

Ii   If
  IR   = -.IR
Constant-current source

A constant-current source delivers a load current that remains

constant when the load resistance changes.

IL = Ii
Ri RL
–
0V 0A
+ Ii
VIN +
–

A basic circuit in which a stable

voltage source (Vin)
provides a constant current
(Ii) through the input  resistor (Ri)

If RL changes, IL remains constant as long as Vin  and 

Ri are held constant.
Current to Voltage Converter

A current-to-voltage converter converts a variable input current

to a proportional output voltage.

A specific application of this circuit is where a photoconductive cell

is used to sense changes in light level. As the amount of light
changes, the cur-rent through the photoconductive cell varies
because of the cell’s change in resistance. This change in resistance
produces a proportional change in the output voltage.
Peak Detector

The circuit is used to detect the peak of the input voltage and
store that peak voltage on a capacitor.

Ri
Vin +

–
R1
Vout

The circuit can be used to detect and store the

maximum value of a voltage surge.
Charge Sensitive Amplifier

It is used in Radiation detection

Charge on a photon is
accumulated in the capacitor
Active Filters
 Basic filter Responses
A filter is a circuit that passes certain frequencies and rejects all others.
The passband is the range of frequencies allowed through the filter.
The critical frequency defines the end (or ends) of the passband and
is normally specified at the point where the response drops -3dB (70.7%)
from the passband response.

 Following the passband is a region called the transition region that

leads into a region called the stopband.

Gain Gain Gain Gain

f f f f

Low-pass High-pass Band-pass Band-stop

The Basic Low-Pass Filter
The low-pass filter allows frequencies below the critical
frequency to pass and rejects other. The simplest low-pass
filter is a passive RC circuit with the output taken across C.
BW = fc
Gain (normalized to 1)

–3 dB 0 dB Actual response of a
single-pole RC filter
Passband
–20 dB
Transition R
region Vout

–40 dB –2
0
BW dB Vs
/de C
Stopband ca
region d e
–60 dB f
0.01 fc 0.1 fc fc 10 fc 100 fc 1000 fc
The Basic Low-Pass Filter

o The ideal response is not attainable by any practical filter.

o Actual filter responses depend on the number of poles,
o Pole, a term used with filters to describe the number of RC circuits
contained in the filter.
o This basic RC filter has a single pole, and it rolls off at
-20db/decade beyond the critical frequency.

o 20db/decade means that at a

frequency of 10fc
the output will be -
20dB(10%) of the input.
o This roll-off allows too much
unwanted frequencies through the
filter
The Basic Low-Pass Filter

o Actual filters do not have a perfectly flat response up to the cutoff

frequency.
o More steeper response cannot be obtained by simply cascading the
basic stages due to loading effect.
o With combination of op-amps, the filters can be designed with
higher roll-offs

o  In general, the more poles the filter

uses, the steeper its transition region
will be. The exact response depends
on the type of filter and the number
of pole.
 Active Filters

General Active Filters

A single pole active filters

The number of filter poles can be increases with cascading

The Basic High-Pass Filter

The high-pass filter passes all frequencies above a critical

frequency and rejects all others. The simplest high-pass
filter is a passive RC circuit with the output taken across R.

Gain (normalized to 1)

–3 dB 0 dB
Actual response Passband
of a single-pole
–20 dB RC filter
C
Vout
de
eca
–40 dB /d
dB
0 Vs
–2 R

–60 dB f
0.001 fc 0.01 fc 0.1 fc fc 10 fc 100 fc
 The Band-Pass Filter

A band-pass filter passes all frequencies between two critical

frequencies. The bandwidth is defined as the difference
between the two critical frequencies fc1 and fc2. The simplest
band-pass filter is an RLC circuit.
R Vout
Bandwidth B.W= fc2 – fc1
Vs C L
Center frequency fo= √ fc1 fc2
Vout (normalized to 1)

Quality Factor:
1
In band pass filters it is ratio of center
frequency to its bandwidth. 0.707

Q = fo /B.W BW

f
fc1 f0 fc2
The Band-Stop Filter

A band-stop filter rejects frequencies between two critical

frequencies; the bandwidth is measured between the critical
frequencies. The simplest band-stop filter is an RLC circuit.

Gain (dB)

0
–3 L

Vout
C

Vs R

f
fc1 f0 fc2
BW
Ideal vs Real Filters

In comparison to ideal low pass filters, the

real RC or RLC filters lack the following
characteristics:

Vout (normalized to 1)

o Flat passband 0.707

o Sharp transition region BW

o Linear phase response fc1 f0 fc2

f

Gain (dB)

0
–3

f
fc1 f0 fc2
BW
 Active Filters

Active filters include one or more op-amps in the design.

One of the three characteristic can be achieved with active

filters:
Av Chebyshev: rapid roll-off characteristic
o Flat band pass with Butterworth

o Sharp roll-off rate with Chebyshev

o Linear phase
Butterworth: flat amplitude response
response.
Bessel: linear phase response
f
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 I D (mA) ID (mA)

8.0 10

7.0

6.0 1.0

5.0
4.0 0.1

3.0

2.0 0.01

1.0

0 VD (V) 0.001 VD (V)

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.