Mechanical Engineering

Department

ASSOSA UNIVERSITY

Chapter 2
Compressible
Flow

2013
1
11 Prepared by: Zerom
 Introduction
 Flows that involve significant changes in density are called
compressible flows. Significant changes in velocity and pressure
result in density variations throughout a flow field
 Therefore, ρ(x, y, z) must now be treated as a field variable
rather than simply a constant.
 Typically, significant density variations start to appear when the
flow Mach number exceeds 0.3 or so. The effects become
especially large when the Mach number approaches and
exceeds unity.
 In this chapter we will consider flows that involve significant
changes in density. Such flows are called compressible flows,
and they are frequently encountered in devices that involve the
flow of gases at very high speeds such as flows in gas turbine
engine components . Many aircraft fly fast enough to involve
2
12 compressible flow.
 Introduction
 Gas has large compressibility but when its velocity is low
compared with the sonic velocity the change in density is
small and it is then treated as an incompressible fluid.
 When a fluid moves at speeds comparable to its speed of
sound, density changes become significant and the flow is
termed compressible.
 Such flows are difficult to obtain in liquids, since high
pressures of order 1000 atm are needed to generate sonic
velocities. In gases, however, a pressure ratio of only 2:1
will likely cause sonic flow. Thus compressible gas flow is
quite common, and this subject is often called gas dynamics.

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 Thermodynamic Relations

Perfect gas
 A perfect gas is one whose individual molecules

interact only via direct collisions, with no other

intermolecular forces present.
 For such a perfect gas, p, ρ, and the temperature T

are related by the following equation of state

 p = ρRT
 where R is the specific gas constant. For air, R

=287J/kg-K◦ .
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 The Equation of State for Perfect Gases

An equation of state is an equation that relates the variables which are

required to fully describe a state of matter. One example of an equation
of state is V = f(p,T, n), which states that volume of a sample of matter
is a function of the pressure, temperature, and the number of particles in
this sample. The exact expression for this relationship, the perfect gas
law, will now be derived. (A gas sample in which there are no
interactions among the particles is a perfect gas. A gas sample in which
all of the interactions are identical is an ideal gas. Thus, all perfect
gases are ideal gases, but not all ideal gases are perfect gases.)

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 Deriving the Perfect Gas Law
The relationship between a single quantity (such as V) and all of the
other variables ( p , T , and n ) was obtained by combining the
following three expressions into a single equation that describes all the
relationships simultaneously:

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which shows that the volume of a gas is proportional to the number of
moles and the temperature and inversely proportional to the pressure.
This expression can also be written as

By convention, the proportionality constant the above equation is called

the gas constant, which is represented by the letter R . Inserting R into
the equation above

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 R is the gas constant, and

where Ro is the universal gas constant (Ro = 8314J/(kg K)) and M is the
molecular weight. For example, for air assuming M = 28.96, the gas
constant is

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 Speed of Sound and Mach number

Speed of Sound: The speed of sound is a basic property of the

atmosphere that changes with temperature. For a given set of
conditions, the speed of sound defines the velocity at which sound
waves travel through a substance, such as air. Scientists have devised a
standard atmosphere model that defines typical values for the speed of
sound that change with altitude.

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 An important parameter in the study of compressible flow is the

speed of sound (or the sonic speed), which is the speed at which an
infinitesimally small pressure wave travels through a medium.
 The pressure wave may be caused by a small disturbance, which

creates a slight rise in local pressure.

 To obtain a relation for the speed of sound in a medium, consider a

duct that is filled with a fluid at rest,

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 A piston fitted in the duct is now moved to the right with a constant
incremental velocity dV, creating a sonic wave.
 The wave front moves to the right through the fluid at the speed of
sound c and separates the moving fluid adjacent to the piston from
the fluid still at rest.
 The fluid to the left of the wave front experiences an incremental
change in its thermodynamic properties, while the fluid on the right
of the wave front maintains its original thermodynamic properties, as
shown in Fig.
 To simplify the analysis, consider a control volume that encloses the
wave front and moves with it, as shown in the fig. below.
 To an observer traveling with the wave front, the fluid to the right
will appear to be moving toward the wave front with a speed of c
and the fluid to the left to be moving away from the wave front with
a speed of c - dV.
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 Ideal Gas Result

For ideal gases →

c = speed of sound [ft/s or m/s]

k = specific heat ratio, which is usually equal to 1.4
R = specific gas constant, which equals 1716 ft-lb/slug/°R in English
units and 287 J/kg/K in Metric units
T = atmospheric temperature in degrees Rankine (°R) in English units
and degrees Kelvin (K) in Metric units s
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 Example -2 find the speed of sound of air at 0 In Table B.4, we
find the speed of sound of air at 0 ℃.

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 Notice that the temperature used for the speed of sound is the
static (normal) temperature.

Example -3

Find the speed of sound in steam where the pressure is 1 MPa

and the temperature is 350oC.

At P = 1 MPa, T = 350oC,
 
 P 
C   P   
   s  1
  
 
  v  s

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Here, we approximate the partial derivative by perturbating
the pressure about 1 MPa. Consider using P±0.025 MPa at
the entropy value s = 7.3011 kJ/kg K, to find the
corresponding specific volumes.
 What is the speed of sound for steam at 350oC assuming
ideal-gas behavior?
1000 m22
Assume k = 1.3, then s
C  1.3(0.4615 kJ )(350 
273)K kJ
kg  K
kg
m
 611.4 s

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Mach number: Mach number is a quantity that defines how quickly a
vehicle travels with respect to the speed of sound. The Mach number
(M) is simply the ratio of the vehicle's velocity (V) divided by the
speed of sound at that altitude (c).

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 Example. Mach Number of Air Entering a Diffuser
 Air enters a diffuser shown in Fig. with a velocity of 200
m/s. Determine (a) the speed of sound and (b) the Mach
number at the diffuser inlet when the air temperature is
30°C.

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 Thermodynamic Relations
 Then, assuming internal energy and enthalpy per unit
mass
e and h respectively,

 the specific enthalpy, denoted by h, and related to the other

variables by

 For a calorically perfect gas, which is an excellent model

for air at moderate temperatures both e and h are directly
proportional to the temperature.

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 Thermodynamic Relations
 Therefore we have

 where cv and cp are specific heats at constant volume and

constant pressure, respectively.

 and comparing to the equation of state, we see that

 Defining the ratio of specific heats, γ ≡ cp/cv, we can with a

bit of algebra write

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 Thermodynamic Relations
 so that cv and cp can be replaced with the equivalent
variables γ and R. For air, it is handy to remember that

First Law of Thermodynamics

 Consider a thermodynamic system consisting of a small
Lagrangian control volume (CV) moving with the
flow.
 Over the short time interval dt, the CV undergoes a process
where it receives work δw and heat δq from its
surroundings, both per unit mass. This process results in
changes in the state of the CV, described by the increments
de, dh, dp . . .
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 Thermodynamic Relations
 The first law of
thermodynamics for the
process is

 This states that whatever

energy is added to the system,
whether by heat or by work, it
must appear as an increase in
the internal energy of the
system.

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 Thermodynamic Relations
Isentropic relations
 Aerodynamic flows are effectively inviscid outside of
boundary layers. This implies they have negligible heat
conduction and friction forces, and hence are isentropic.
 Therefore, along the pathline followed by the CV in the
figure above, the isentropic version of the first law applies

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 Thermodynamic Relations

 This relation can be integrated after a few

substitutions.
First we note that

 and with the perfect gas

relation

 the isentropic first law

becomes

→
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 Thermodynamic Relations
 The final form can now be integrated from any state 1
to any state 2 along the pathline.

 From the equation of state we also have

 Which gives the alternative isentropic

relation

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 Stagnation Properties
 Consider a fluid flowing into a diffuser at a velocity V ,
temperature T, pressure P, and enthalpy h, etc. Here the
ordinary properties T, P, h, etc. are called the static
properties; that is, they are measured relative to the flow
at the flow velocity.
 If the diffuser is sufficiently long and the exit area is
sufficiently large that the fluid is brought to rest (zero
velocity) at the diffuser exit while no work or heat
transfer is done. The resulting state is called the
stagnation state.
 Stagnation Properties

• We apply the first law per unit mass for one entrance, one
exit, and neglect the potential energies. Let the inlet state
be unsubscripted and the exit or stagnation state have
the subscript o.
2  V 2o
h  V 
q net
ho 2  wnet 2
 Since the exit velocity, work, and heat transfer are zero,

V2
ho  h 
2

 The term ho is called the stagnation enthalpy (some

authors call this the total enthalpy).
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 It is the enthalpy the fluid attains when brought to
rest adiabatically while no work is done.
 Stagnation Properties
 If, in addition, the process is
also reversible, the process
is isentropic, and the inlet
and exit entropies are
equal.
s
Thesostagnation enthalpy and
entropy define the stagnation
state and the isentropic
stagnation pressure, Po.
 The actual stagnation pressure
for irreversible flows will be
somewhat less than the
isentropic stagnation pressure
as shown in the fig.
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 Example 1
 Steam at 400oC, 1.0 MPa, and 300 m/s flows through a
pipe. Find the properties of the steam at the stagnation
state.
Solution
 At T = 400oC and P = 1.0 MPa,
h = 3264.5 kJ/kg s = 7.4670
Then kJ/kgK
V2
ho  h 
2
 m
2 kJ
kJ  300 s  kg
 3264.5   
kg 2 1000 m22
s

kJ
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1  3309.5 kg
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 Example 1…. solution

and
kJ
so = s = 7.4670
kg  K

ho  h( Po, so )
 We can find Po by trial and error. The resulting stagnation
properties are
Po 1.16 MPa
To  422.2o
C
1 kg
  v  3.640 3
o
o m

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 Ideal Gas Result

Rewrite the equation defining the stagnation enthalpy as

V2
ho  h 
2
For ideal gases with constant specific heats, the
enthalpy difference becomes
2
CP (To  T)  V

where To is defined as the stagnation temperature.

2
V2

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To  T  P
2C
 For the isentropic process, the stagnation pressure can be
determined from

or

The ratio of the stagnation density to static density can

be expressed as

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 Example 2
 An aircraft is flying at a cruising speed of 250 m/s at an altitude of
5000 m where the atmospheric pressure is 54.05 kPa and the
ambient air temperature is 255.7 K. The ambient air is first
decelerated in a diffuser before it enters the compressor.
Assuming both the diffuser and the compressor to be isentropic,
determine (a) the stagnation pressure at the compressor inlet and
(b) the required compressor work per unit mass if the stagnation
pressure ratio of the compressor is 8.

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 Solution
 High-speed air enters the diffuser and the compressor of an
aircraft. The stagnation pressure of the air and the
compressor work input are to be determined.
 Assumptions 1 Both the diffuser and the compressor are
isentropic. 2 Air is an ideal gas with constant specific
heats at room temperature.
 Properties The constant-pressure specific heat cp and
the specific heat ratio k of air at room temperature are
cp = 1.005 kJ/kg . K and k =
1.4
 Analysis
(a)the stagnation temperature T01 at the compressor inlet can
be determined from
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 Solution

 Then

 That is, the temperature of air would increase by 31.1°C

and the pressure by 26.72 kPa as air is decelerated from
250 m/s to zero velocity. These increases in the temperature
and pressure of air are due to the conversion of the kinetic
energy into enthalpy.
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 Solution
 To determine the compressor work, we need to know the
stagnation temperature of air at the compressor exit T02.

 Disregarding potential energy changes and heat transfer, the

compressor work per unit mass of air is determined from

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 Conservation of Energy for Control Volumes Using
Stagnation Properties

The steady-flow conservation of energy for the above figure is

Since
V2
ho  h 
2

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 For no heat transfer, one entrance, one exit, this reduces to

If we neglect the change in potential energy, this becomes

For ideal gases with constant specific heats we write this

as

Conservation of Energy for a Nozzle

We assume steady-flow, no heat transfer, no work, one entrance,

and one exit and neglect elevation changes; then the
43 conservation of energy becomes
 But m1= m2 thus ho1  ho2
Thus the stagnation enthalpy remains constant throughout the
nozzle. At any cross section in the nozzle, the stagnation
enthalpy is the same as that at the entrance. For ideal gases
this last result becomes
To1  To2
Thus the stagnation temperature remains constant through out
the nozzle. At any cross section in the nozzle, the stagnation
temperature is the same as that at the entrance.
Assuming an isentropic process for flow through the nozzle,
we can write for the entrance and exit states

So we see that the stagnation pressure is also constant

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1 through out the nozzle for isentropic flow.
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 Effect of Back Pressure on Flow through a Converging Nozzle
Consider the converging nozzle
shown below. The flow is supplied
by a reservoir at pressure Pr and
temperature Tr. The reservoir is
large enough that the velocity in the
reservoir is zero.

Let's plot the ratio P/Po along the

length of the nozzle, the mass flow
rate through the nozzle, and the exit
plane pressure Pe as the back
pressure Pb is varied. Let's consider
isentropic flow so that Po is
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constant throughout the nozzle.
 Effect of Back Pressure on Flow through a Converging Nozzle
 Now we begin to reduce the back pressure and observe the
resulting effects on the pressure distribution along the length of
the nozzle, as shown in the Fig. above.
 If the back pressure Pb is equal to P1, which is equal to Pr, there
is no flow and the pressure distribution is uniform along the
nozzle.
 When the back pressure is reduced to P2, the exit plane pressure Pe
also drops to P2. This causes the pressure along the nozzle to
decrease in the flow direction.
 When the back pressure is reduced to P3 (= P*, which is the
pressure required to increase the fluid velocity to the speed of
sound at the exit plane or throat), the mass flow reaches a
maximum value and the flow is said to be choked.
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 Effect of Back Pressure on Flow through a Converging Nozzle
 Further reduction of the back pressure to level P4 or below does
not result in additional changes in the pressure distribution, or
anything else along the nozzle length.
 Under steady-flow conditions, the mass flow rate through
the nozzle is constant and can be expressed as

 Solving for T and for P

from from
and substituting

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 Effect of Back Pressure on Flow through a Converging Nozzle
 Thus the mass flow rate of a particular fluid through a nozzle is
a function of the stagnation properties of the fluid, the flow
area, and the Mach number.
 The maximum mass flow rate can be determined by
differentiating the above equation with respect to Ma
and setting the result equal to zero. It yields Ma = 1.
 Since the only location in a nozzle where the Mach number can
be unity is the location of minimum flow area (the throat), the
mass flow rate through a nozzle is a maximum when Ma = 1 at
the throat. Denoting this area by A*, we obtain an expression
for the maximum mass flow rate by substituting Ma = 1

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 Effect of Back Pressure on Flow through a Converging Nozzle

 A relation for the variation of flow area A through the

nozzle relative to throat area A* can be obtained by
combining equations f or andfor the same mass flow rate
and stagnation properties of a particular fluid. This yields

 Another parameter sometimes used in the analysis of one-

dimensional isentropic flow of ideal gases is Ma*, which
is the ratio of the local velocity to the speed of sound at
the throat:

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 Effect of Back Pressure on Flow through a Converging Nozzle
 where Ma is the local Mach number, T is the local
temperature, and T* is the critical temperature.
 Solving for T and for T* and substituting, we get

 Note that the parameter Ma* differs from the Mach number
Ma in that Ma* is the local velocity nondimensionalized
with respect to the sonic velocity at the throat, whereas Ma
is the local velocity nondimensionalized with respect to the
local sonic velocity.

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Table 1
 Effect of Back Pressure on Flow through a Converging Nozzle
 A plot of versus Pb /P0 for a
converging nozzle is shown in
Fig. below.
 Notice that the mass flow rate
increases with decreasing Pb /P0,
reaches a maximum at Pb = P*,
and remains constant for Pb /P0
values less than this critical
ratio. Also illustrated on this
figure is the effect of
pressure on the back
nozzle Pe. We observe that exit
pressure

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 Effect of Back Pressure on Flow through a Converging Nozzle
 To summarize, for all back pressures lower than the critical
pressure P*, the pressure at the exit plane of the converging
nozzle Pe is equal to P*, the Mach number at the exit plane is
unity, and the mass flow rate is the maximum (or choked) flow
rate.
 Because the velocity of the flow is sonic at the throat for the
maximum flow rate, a back pressure lower than the critical
pressure cannot be sensed in the nozzle upstream flow and
does not affect the flow rate.

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 Example. Effect of Back Pressure on Mass Flow Rate
 Air at 1 MPa and 600°C enters a converging nozzle, shown
in Fig., with a velocity of 150 m/s. Determine the mass
flow rate through the nozzle for a nozzle throat area of 50
cm2 when the back pressure is (a) 0.7 MPa and (b) 0.4
MPa.

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 The critical-pressure ratio is determined from Table 1 (or
Eq. below)

to be P*/P0 = 0.5283.

That is, Pt = Pb = 0.7 MPa, and Pt /P0 = 0.670. Therefore, the flow
is not choked. From Table 1 at Pt /P0 = 0.670, we read Mat =
0.778 and Tt /T0 = 0.892.

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 Converging–Diverging Nozzles

 When we think of nozzles, we ordinarily think of flow

passages whose cross-sectional area decreases in the flow
direction. However, the highest velocity to which a fluid
can be accelerated in a converging nozzle is limited to the
sonic velocity (Ma = 1), which occurs at the exit plane
(throat) of the nozzle.
 Accelerating a fluid to supersonic velocities (Ma > 1) can
be accomplished only by attaching a diverging flow section
to the subsonic nozzle at the throat. The resulting
combined flow section is a converging– diverging nozzle,
which is standard equipment in supersonic aircraft and
rocket propulsion.

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 Converging–Diverging Nozzles
 Forcing a fluid through a converging–diverging nozzle is no
guarantee that the fluid will be accelerated to a supersonic velocity.
 In fact, the fluid may find itself decelerating in the diverging
section instead of accelerating if the back pressure is not in the
right range.
 The state of the nozzle flow is determined by the overall pressure
ratio Pb/P0. Therefore, for given inlet conditions, the flow through a
converging–diverging nozzle is governed by the back pressure Pb.

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 Converging–Diverging
Nozzles
 Consider the converging–
diverging nozzle shown in Fig.
A fluid enters the nozzle with a
low velocity at stagnation
pressure P0. When Pb =P0 (case
A), there is no flow through the
nozzle.
 This is expected since the flow
in a nozzle is driven by the
pressure difference between the
nozzle inlet and the exit.
 Now let us examine what
happens as the back pressure is
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1 lowered.
60
Converging–Diverging Nozzles
 Converging–Diverging Nozzles

3. When PC > Pb > PE, the fluid that achieved a sonic velocity at
the throat continues accelerating to supersonic velocities in the
diverging section as the pressure decreases. This acceleration
comes to a sudden stop, however, as a normal shock develops
at a section between the throat and the exit plane, which causes
a sudden drop in velocity to subsonic levels and a sudden
increase in pressure.
 The fluid then continues to decelerate further in the remaining
part of the converging–diverging nozzle. Flow through the shock
is highly irreversible, and thus it cannot be approximated as
isentropic. The normal shock moves downstream away from the
throat as Pb is decreased, and it approaches the nozzle exit plane
as Pb approaches PE.

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 Converging–Diverging Nozzles
 When Pb = PE, the normal shock forms at the exit plane of the
nozzle. The flow is supersonic through the entire diverging
section in this case, and it can be approximated as isentropic.
However, the fluid velocity drops to subsonic levels just
before leaving the nozzle as it crosses the normal shock.
4. When PE > Pb > 0, the flow in the diverging section is
supersonic, and the fluid expands to PF at the nozzle exit with
no normal shock forming within the nozzle. Thus, the flow
through the nozzle can be approximated as isentropic.
 When Pb = PF, no shocks occur within or outside the
nozzle.
When Pb < PF, irreversible mixing and expansion waves occur
downstream of the exit plane of the nozzle. When Pb > PF,
1
however, the pressure of the fluid increases from PF to Pb
63 irreversibly in the wake of the nozzle exit, creating what are
 Example -7

Air leaves the turbine of a turbojet engine and enters a

convergent nozzle at 400 K, 871 kPa, with a velocity of 180 m/s.
The nozzle has an exit area of 730 cm2. Determine the mass
flow rate through the nozzle for back pressures of 700 kPa, 528
kPa, and 100 kPa, assuming isentropic flow.

The stagnation temperature and stagnation pressure are

V2
To  T 
82
1 2CP
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 For air k = 1.4 and from Table or using the equation below the
critical pressure ratio is P*/Po = 0.528. The critical pressure for
this nozzle is P*  0.528Po
 0.528(1000 kPa)  528 kPa
Therefore, for a back pressure of 528 kPa, M = 1 at the nozzle exit and
the flow is choked. For a back pressure of 700 kPa, the nozzle is not
choked. The flow rate will not increase for back pressures below 528
83
1 kPa.
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For the back pressure of 700 kPa,

PB 700 kPa  0.700 P *



Po 1000 kPa
Thus, PE = PB = 700 kPa. For this pressure ratio Table 1 gives
Po
M E  0.7324
TE
 0.9031
To
TE  0.9031To  0.9031(416.1 K)  375.8 K
CE  kRTE
1000 m22
s
 1.4(0.287 kJ )(375.8K)
kg  K kJ

kg
m
 388.6 s
 m
VE  M E CE  (0.7324)(388.6 )
s
m
84
1  284.6 s
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 P (700kPa) kJ
E  
RT
E kJ m 3
kPa
E (0.28 )
7 kg  (375.8K)
K
kg
Then  6.4902 3
m

m  E
AEVE kg m m 2
 6.4902 3 (730 cm )(284.6 )
2
2
m s (100
cm)
kg
 134.8 s
For the back pressure of
528 kPa,
*
PE  0.528 P
 P

528 kPa Po o
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67 1000 kPa
 This is the critical pressure ratio and ME = 1 and PE = PB = P* = 528 kPa.
TE  T *
 0.8333
To
TTo 0.8333T  0.8333(416.1K)  346.7 K
E o

And since ME = 1,
VE  C E  kRTE

1000 m22
s
 1.4(0.287 kJ )(346.7K)
kg  K kJ

kg
m
 373.2 s

(528kPa) kJ
 E  *  P* 
RT kJ
(0.287 m3 kPa
*
kg  )(346.7K)
K
kg
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1  5.3064
68 m3
 m  E
AEVE kg m 2
 3
2
(730 cm )(373.2 ) m
2
5.3064 m s (100
cm)
kg
 144.6 s
For a back pressure less than the critical pressure, 528 kPa in this case,
the nozzle is choked and the mass flow rate will be the same as that for
the critical pressure. Therefore, at a back pressure of 100 kPa the mass
flow rate will be 144.6 kg/s.

Example -8
Air enters a converging–diverging nozzle, shown in Fig., at 1.0 MPa and
800 K with a negligible velocity. The flow is steady, one-dimensional,
and isentropic with k = 1.4. For an exit Mach number of Ma = 2 and a
throat area of 20 cm2, determine (a) the throat conditions, (b) the exit
plane conditions, including the exit area, and (c) the mass flow rate
through the nozzle.
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 End of Course

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