Chapter 3

MORE SQL

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Outline
 More Complex SQL Retrieval Queries
 Specifying Constraints as Assertions and
Actions as Triggers
 Views in SQL
 Schema Change Statements in SQL
 Database Programming

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 2

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 NULLS IN SQL QUERIES
 SQL allows queries that check if a value is NULL
(missing or undefined or not applicable)
 SQL uses IS or IS NOT to compare NULLs because it
considers each NULL value distinct from other NULL
values, so equality comparison is not appropriate .
 Query 14: Retrieve the names of all employees who do
not have supervisors.
Q14: SELECT FNAME, LNAME
FROMEMPLOYEE
WHERE SUPERSSN IS NULL
Note: If a join condition is specified, tuples with NULL
values for the join attributes are not included in the result

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 3

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 NESTING OF QUERIES
 A complete SELECT query, called a nested query , can be specified
within the WHERE-clause of another query, called the outer query
 Many of the previous queries can be specified in an alternative form
using nesting
 Query 1: Retrieve the name and address of all employees who work
for the 'Research' department.

Q1: SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS

FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNO IN (SELECT DNUMBER
FROM DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research' )

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 4

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 CORRELATED NESTED
QUERIES
 If a condition in the WHERE-clause of a nested query references an
attribute of a relation declared in the outer query , the two queries
are said to be correlated
 The result of a correlated nested query is different for each tuple (or
combination of tuples) of the relation(s) the outer query
 Query 12: Retrieve the name of each employee who has a
dependent with the same first name as the employee.

Q12: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE AS E
WHERE E.SSN IN (SELECT ESSN
FROM DEPENDENT
WHERE ESSN=E.SSN AND
E.FNAME=DEPENDENT_NAME)

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 5

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 CORRELATED NESTED
QUERIES (cont.)
 In Q12, the nested query has a different result for each tuple in
the outer query
 A query written with nested SELECT... FROM... WHERE...
blocks and using the = or IN comparison operators can always
be expressed as a single block query. For example, Q12 may
be written as in Q12A

Q12A: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE E, DEPENDENT D
WHERE E.SSN=D.ESSN AND
E.FNAME=D.DEPENDENT_NAME

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 6

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 THE EXISTS FUNCTION

 EXISTS is used to check whether the

result of a correlated nested query is
empty (contains no tuples) or not
 We can formulate Query 12 in an
alternative form that uses EXISTS as
Q12B below

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 7

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 THE EXISTS FUNCTION (cont.)
 Query 12: Retrieve the name of each employee
who has a dependent with the same first name
as the employee.

Q12B: SELECT FNAME, LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT *
FROM DEPENDENT
WHERE SSN=ESSN AND
FNAME=DEPENDENT_NAME)

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 8

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 THE EXISTS FUNCTION (cont.)
 Query 6: Retrieve the names of employees who have
no dependents.

Q6: SELECT FNAME, LNAME

FROMEMPLOYEE
WHERE NOT EXISTS (SELECT *
FROM DEPENDENT
WHERE SSN=ESSN)

– In Q6, the correlated nested query retrieves all DEPENDENT

tuples related to an EMPLOYEE tuple. If none exist , the
EMPLOYEE tuple is selected
– EXISTS is necessary for the expressive power of SQL

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 9

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 More Comparison Operators
 … {=, >, >=, <, <=, <>} {ANY, SOME,
ALL} …
 Query 17: Retrieve all employees whose salary is
greater than the salary of all employees in dept. 5

Q17: SELECT *
FROM Employee
WHERE Salary > ALL (SELECT Salary
FROM Employee
WHERE DNO=5)

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 10

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 EXPLICIT SETS
 It is also possible to use an explicit (enumerated) set
of values in the WHERE-clause rather than a nested
query
 Query 13: Retrieve the social security numbers of all
employees who work on project number 1, 2, or 3.

Q13: SELECT DISTINCT ESSN

FROM WORKS_ON
WHERE PNO IN (1, 2, 3)

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 11

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 Renaming of Attributes in SQL

 Rename any attribute that appears in the

result of a query by adding the qualifier AS
followed by the desired new name

Q8A: SELECT E.Lname AS Employee_name, S.Lname

AS Supervisor_name
FROM EMPLOYEE AS E, EMPLOYEE AS S
WHERE E.Super_ssn=S.Ssn

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 12

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 SET OPERATIONS
 SQL has directly incorporated some set operations
 There is a union operation (UNION), and in some
versions of SQL there are set difference (MINUS or
EXCEPT) and intersection (INTERSECT) operations
 The resulting relations of these set operations are
sets of tuples; duplicate tuples are eliminated from
the result
 The set operations apply only to union compatible
relations ; the two relations must have the same
attributes and the attributes must appear in the
same order

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 13

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 SET OPERATIONS (cont.)
 Query 4: Make a list of all project numbers for projects
that involve an employee whose last name is 'Smith'
as a worker or as a manager of the department that
controls the project.

Q4: (SELECT PNAME

FROM PROJECT, DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNUM=DNUMBER AND MGRSSN=SSN
AND LNAME='Smith')
UNION (SELECT PNAME
FROM PROJECT, WORKS_ON, EMPLOYEE
WHERE PNUMBER=PNO AND ESSN=SSN AND
LNAME='Smith')

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 14

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 5.
7

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 2-15

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 SET OPERATIONS (cont.)
 Q3: Retrieve the name of each employee who works on
all the projects controlled by department number 5

Q3A: SELECT Fname, Lname

FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE NOT EXISTS (
(SELECT Pnumber FROM PROJECT)
EXCEPT
(SELECT Pno FROM WORKS_ON WHERE Ssn=Essn));

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 16

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 Joined Relations Feature
in SQL2
 Can specify a "joined relation" in the FROM-
clause
 Looks like any other relation but is the result of
a join
 Includes inner join and outer join
 Allows the user to specify different types of joins
(regular "theta" JOIN, NATURAL JOIN, LEFT
OUTER JOIN, RIGHT OUTER JOIN, FULL
OUTER JOIN, CROSS JOIN, etc)

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 17

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 Joined Relations Feature
in SQL2 (cont.)
 Q1: SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS
FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research' AND DNUMBER=DNO
 could be written as:

Q1: SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS

FROM (EMPLOYEE JOIN DEPARTMENT
ON DNUMBER=DNO)
WHERE DNAME='Research’

or as:

Q1: SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS

FROM (EMPLOYEE NATURAL JOIN (DEPARTMENT
AS DEPT(DNAME, DNO, MSSN, MSDATE)))
WHERE DNAME='Research’

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 18

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 Joined Relations Feature
in SQL2 (cont.)

Q8: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME, S.LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE E S
WHERE E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN

can be written as:

Q8: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME, S.LNAME

FROM (EMPLOYEE E LEFT OUTER JOIN EMPLOYEES
ON E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN)

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 19

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 Joined Relations Feature
in SQL2 (cont.)
 Another Example;
Q2: SELECT Pnumber, Dnum, Lname, Address, Bdate
FROM PROJECT, DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE
WHERE Dnum=Dnumber AND Mgr_ssn=Ssn AND
Plocation=‘Stafford’;

Q2: SELECT PNUMBER, DNUM, LNAME,

BDATE, ADDRESS
FROM (PROJECT JOIN DEPARTMENT ON
DNUM=DNUMBER)
JOIN EMPLOYEE ON MGRSSN=SSN) )
WHERE PLOCATION='Stafford’

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 20

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS
 Include COUNT, SUM, MAX, MIN, and AVG
 Query 15: Find the maximum salary, the minimum salary,
and the average salary among all employees.

Q15: SELECT MAX(SALARY),

MIN(SALARY), AVG(SALARY)
FROM EMPLOYEE

– Some SQL implementations may not allow more than

one function in the SELECT-clause

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 21

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS
(cont.)
 Query 16: Find the maximum salary, the minimum
salary, and the average salary among employees
who work for the 'Research' department.

Q16: SELECT MAX(SALARY), MIN(SALARY),

AVG(SALARY)
FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNO=DNUMBER AND
DNAME='Research'

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 22

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS
(cont.)
 Queries 17 and 18: Retrieve the total number of
employees in the company (Q17), and the number of
employees in the 'Research' department (Q18).

Q17: SELECT COUNT (*)

FROM EMPLOYEE

Q18: SELECT COUNT (*)

FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNO=DNUMBER AND
DNAME='Research’

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 23

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 GROUPING
 In many cases, we want to apply the
aggregate functions to subgroups of tuples in a
relation
 Each subgroup of tuples consists of the set of
tuples that have the same value for the
grouping attribute(s)
 The function is applied to each subgroup
independently
 SQL has a GROUP BY-clause for specifying
the grouping attributes, which must also
appear in the SELECT-clause
Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 24
Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 GROUPING (cont.)
 Query 20: For each department, retrieve the department
number, the number of employees in the department, and their
average salary.

Q20:SELECT DNO, COUNT (*), AVG (SALARY)

FROM EMPLOYEE
GROUP BY DNO

– In Q20, the EMPLOYEE tuples are divided into groups--each

group having the same value for the grouping attribute DNO
– The COUNT and AVG functions are applied to each such
group of tuples separately
– The SELECT-clause includes only the grouping attribute and
the functions to be applied on each group of tuples
– A join condition can be used in conjunction with grouping

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 25

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 GROUPING (cont.)
 Query 21: For each project, retrieve the project number,
project name, and the number of employees who work on
that project.

Q21: SELECT PNUMBER, PNAME, COUNT (*)

FROM PROJECT, WORKS_ON
WHERE PNUMBER=PNO
GROUP BY PNUMBER, PNAME

– In this case, the grouping and functions are applied after the
joining of the two relations

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 26

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 THE HAVING-CLAUSE
 Sometimes we want to retrieve the values
of these functions for only those groups
that satisfy certain conditions
 The HAVING-clause is used for specifying
a selection condition on groups (rather
than on individual tuples)

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 27

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 THE HAVING-CLAUSE (cont.)
 Query 22: For each project on which more than
two employees work , retrieve the project
number, project name, and the number of
employees who work on that project.

Q22: SELECT PNUMBER, PNAME, COUNT

(*)
FROM PROJECT, WORKS_ON
WHERE PNUMBER=PNO
GROUP BY PNUMBER, PNAME
HAVING COUNT (*) > 2

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 28

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 ORDER BY
 The ORDER BY clause is used to sort the tuples
in a query result based on the values of some
attribute(s) in ascending or descending order
 Query 28: Retrieve a list of employees and the projects
each works in, ordered by the employee's department,
and within each department ordered alphabetically by
employee last name.

Q28: SELECT DNAME, LNAME, FNAME, PNAME

FROM DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE,
WORKS_ON, PROJECT
WHERE DNUMBER=DNO AND SSN=ESSN
AND PNO=PNUMBER
ORDER BY DNAME, LNAME [DESC|ASC]

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 29

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 Outline
 More Complex SQL Retrieval Queries
 Specifying Constraints as Assertions and
Actions as Triggers
 Views in SQL
 Schema Change Statements in SQL
 Database Programming

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 30

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 Constraints as Assertions

 General constraints: constraints that do

not fit in the basic SQL categories
 Mechanism: CREAT ASSERTION
– components include: a constraint name,
followed by CHECK, followed by a condition

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 31

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 Assertions: An Example

 “The salary of an employee must not be

greater than the salary of the manager of
the department that the employee works
for’’
CREAT ASSERTION SALARY_CONSTRAINT
CHECK (NOT EXISTS (SELECT *
FROM EMPLOYEE E, EMPLOYEE M, DEPARTMENT D
WHERE E.SALARY > M.SALARY AND
E.DNO=D.NUMBER AND D.MGRSSN=M.SSN))

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 32

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 SQL Triggers
 Objective: to monitor a database and
take action when a condition occurs
 Triggers are expressed in a syntax
similar to assertions and include the
following:
– event (e.g., an update operation)
– condition
– action (to be taken when the condition is
satisfied)

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 33

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 SQL Triggers: An Example
 A trigger to compare an employee’s salary to his/her
supervisor during insert or update operations:

CREATE TRIGGER INFORM_SUPERVISOR

BEFORE INSERT OR UPDATE OF
SALARY, SUPERVISOR_SSN ON EMPLOYEE
FOR EACH ROW
WHEN
(NEW.SALARY> (SELECT SALARY FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE SSN=NEW.SUPERVISOR_SSN))
INFORM_SUPERVISOR (NEW.SUPERVISOR_SSN,NEW.SSN;

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 34

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 SQL Triggers

 More example

 How to update Total_sal automatically??

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 35

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 SQL Triggers
 Firstly, determine the events which can impact on what
we want

 Secondly, for each event, do we need a condition?

– Exp: event 1: if dno is not null
 Finally, write the action to solve
– Exp: recompute the total salary of department

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 36

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 37
Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 38
Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 SQL Triggers - Syntax

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 39

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 Outline
 More Complex SQL Retrieval Queries
 Specifying Constraints as Assertions and
Actions as Triggers
 Views in SQL
 Schema Change Statements in SQL

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 40

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 Views in SQL

 A view is a “virtual” table that is derived

from other tables
 Allows for limited update operations
(since the table may not physically be
stored)
 Allows full query operations
 A convenience for expressing certain
operations
Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 41
Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 Specification of Views

 SQL command: CREATE VIEW

– a table (view) name
– a possible list of attribute names (for
example, when arithmetic operations are
specified or when we want the names to be
different from the attributes in the base
relations)
– a query to specify the table contents

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 42

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 SQL Views: An Example

 Specify a different WORKS_ON table

CREATE VIEW WORKS_ON_NEW AS

SELECT FNAME, LNAME, PNAME, HOURS
FROM EMPLOYEE, PROJECT, WORKS_ON
WHERE SSN=ESSN AND PNO=PNUMBER
GROUP BY PNAME;

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 43

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 Using a Virtual Table

 We can specify SQL queries on a newly

table (view):
SELECT FNAME, LNAME FROM WORKS_ON_NEW
WHERE PNAME=‘Seena’;
 When no longer needed, a view can be
dropped:
DROP VIEW WORKS_ON_NEW;

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 44

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 Efficient View Implementation

 Query modification: present the view

query in terms of a query on the
underlying base tables
– disadvantage: inefficient for views defined
via complex queries (especially if additional
queries are to be applied to the view within
a short time period)
– Exp:

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 45

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 Efficient View Implementation

 View materialization: involves physically

creating and keeping a temporary table
– assumption: other queries on the view will follow
– concerns: maintaining correspondence between
the base table and the view when the base table
is updated
– strategy: incremental update
– kept as a materialized (physically stored) table as
long as it is being queried

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 46

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 View Update

 Update on a single view without

aggregate operations: update may map
to an update on the underlying base
table
 Views involving joins: an update may
map to an update on the underlying base
relations
– not always possible

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 47

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 48
Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 Un-updatable Views
 Views defined using groups and
aggregate functions are not updateable
 Views defined on multiple tables using
joins are generally not updateable
 CREATE VIEW syntax has a WITH
CHECK OPTION will prevent data being
added or modified within the view that
cannot subsequently be retrieved from
the view
Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 49
Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 Un-updatable Views
 WITH CHECK OPTION
Exp:
CREATE VIEW emp_dep5
AS
SELECT SSN, Lname, Fname, Dno FROM
EMPLOYEE WHERE DNO = 5 WITH CHECK OPTION
INSERT INTO emp_dep5 VALUES (‘111112222’,
‘Bob’, ‘Smith’, 3)
Cannot insert successfully

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 50

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 Views in SQL

CREATE VIEW [<database_name>.]

[<owner>.]view_name [ (column[,...n])] 
AS 
select_statement 
[ WITH CHECK OPTION ]

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 51

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 Outline
 More Complex SQL Retrieval Queries
 Specifying Constraints as Assertions and
Actions as Triggers
 Views in SQL
 Schema Change Statements in SQL

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 52

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 DROP Command

 Two drop behavior options: CASCADE &

RESTRICT

Examples:
DROP SCHEMA COMPANY CASCADE;
DROP TABLE DEPENDENT RESTRICT;

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 53

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 ALTER TABLE
 Used to add an attribute to one of the base relations
 The new attribute will have NULLs in all the tuples of the relation
right after the command is executed; hence, the NOT NULL
constraint is not allowed for such an attribute
 Example:
ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE ADD COLUMN JOB VARCHAR(12);
ALTER TABLE COMPANY.EMPLOYEE DROP COLUMN Address CASCADE;
ALTER TABLE COMPANY.DEPARTMENT ALTER COLUMN Mgr_ssn DROP
DEFAULT;
ALTER TABLE COMPANY.EMPLOYEE DROP CONSTRAINT EMPSUPERFK
CASCADE;
View the syntax in book or google

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 54

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 Summary

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 55

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
 Summary

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition Slide 3 - 56

Copyright © 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe