0% found this document useful (0 votes)
846 views129 pages

AC Apparatus and Devices

This document provides an overview of key concepts in magnetism and AC apparatus devices covered for the first exam. It discusses the magnetic field, flux, permeability, magnetic circuits, transformers and various types. Examples are provided to illustrate concepts like force between magnets, induced emf, and transformer design calculations. The document serves as an introduction to important topics in electromagnetism and electric machines.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
846 views129 pages

AC Apparatus and Devices

This document provides an overview of key concepts in magnetism and AC apparatus devices covered for the first exam. It discusses the magnetic field, flux, permeability, magnetic circuits, transformers and various types. Examples are provided to illustrate concepts like force between magnets, induced emf, and transformer design calculations. The document serves as an introduction to important topics in electromagnetism and electric machines.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 129

AC APPARATUS AND DEVICES

EE 460L
COVERAGE FOR 1ST EXAM

• MAGNETISM
• Magnetic Field
• Magnetic Flux and Magnetic Flux Density
• Permeability
• Relation between Flux Density and Field Intensity
• Magnetomotive Force
• Induced EMF
• Magnetic Circuits
INTRODUCTION

• Electric machines and electromechanical devices


are made up of coupled electric and magnetic
circuits with basic concepts of magnetism.
MAGNETISM

• Force of attraction or repulsion that acts between magnets


and other magnetic materials.
NATURE MAGNETIC FIELD

• Magnetic field is the space surrounding the


magnet, where the magnetic effect is experienced
• Flux lines
• Show direction and intensity of this field at all points
• Field is strongest at poles
• Direction is from N to S
FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

• Attracted by magnets
• Provide an easy path for magnetic flux
• Iron, nickel, cobalt, and their alloys

• Nonmagnetic materials such as plastic,


wood, and glass
• Have no effect on the field
MAGNETIC FLUX - Φ

• Lines of Forces produced by a magnet


• Measured in Weber (Wb) or Maxwell
(Mx)

Note: 1 Weber = 108 Maxwells


MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY - B

••  The magnetic flux passing through a unit cross section

• Measured in Tesla (T) or Gauss


Note: Area A is normal or perpendicular to the flux
1 Tesla = 10,000 Gauss
PERMEABILITY – μ

• The property of the material to allow or conduct magnetic


flux through it.
• A good magnetic material should have high value of
permeability.
• The ratio of magnetic flux density to magnetic flux intensity.
ABSOLUTE PERMEABILITY - μo

• The permeability of vacuum or air


• Approximately equal to the 4π x 10-7 H/m
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY -

• Ratio of the permeability of a given material to the permeability of vacuum


or air.
LAWS OF MAGNETIC FORCE

•  First Law
• Like poles repel each other while unlike poles attract each other.
• Second Law
• The force between two magnetic poles is directly proportional to the product of their
magnetic strengths and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their
centers.

Where:
MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY – H

•  Also known as Magnetizing Force


• Any point within a magnetic field numerically equal to the force experience
by a N-pole of 1 weber at that point
• Measured in N/Wb
RELATION BETWEEN B AND H

• The flux density produced in a material is directly proportional to the applied


magnetizing force H.
EXAMPLE

• Two magnetic S poles are located 5 cm apart in air. If each pole has strength
of 5 mWb, find the force of repulsion between them.
EXAMPLE

• A bar of iron 1 cm2 cross-section has 10-4 Wb of magnetic flux on it. If the
relative permeability of iron is 2000, what is the magnetic field intensity in
the bar?
EXAMPLE

• A circular coil of diameter 20 mm is mounted with the plane of the coil


perpendicular to the direction of a uniform magnetic flux density of 100 mT.
Find the total flux threading the coil.
ELECTROMAGNETISM

• Many applications of magnetism involve magnetic


effects due to electric currents
• Direction of magnetic field may be determined by the
Right Hand Rule
• Place your right hand around conductor with your
thumb in the direction of the current
• Your fingers will point in the direction of the magnetic
field
MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY INSIDE A
SOLENOID
EXAMPLE

• A 900 turn coil solenoid having an average diameter of 2 in and a length of 6


in, carries a current of 0.35 A. Calculate the flux density at the center of the
solenoid.
EXAMPLE

• A solenoid 20 cm long is wound with 300 turns of wire and carries a current
of 1.5 A. What is the approximate relative permeability of this core so as to
produce a magnetic field of 0.6 T inside?
MAGNETIC FIELD FROM A LONG STRAIGHT
CONDUCTOR

• If parallel wire
• Opposing – subtractiion
• Aiding – addition
EXAMPLE

• Two parallel wires A and B are 20 cm apart and each carries a current of 5 A
in the same direction. Find the flux density between the wires 5 cm from the
wire A.
FORCE EXPERIENCED BY A CURRENT
CARRYING CONDUCTOR IF PLACED IN A
MAGNETIC FIELD

• 
𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
FORCE EXPERIENCED BY A CURRENT
CARRYING CONDUCTOR IF PLACED IN A
MAGNETIC FIELD
EXAMPLE

• A straight conductor 150 cm long and carrying a direct current of 50 A lies


perpendicular to a magnetic field of 1.0 T. Find the mechanical power needed
in watts to move the conductor against the magnetic force at a uniform speed
of 5 m/s.
FORCE BETWEEN CURRENT CARRYING
PARALLEL CONDUCTORS

• 
FORCE BETWEEN CURRENT CARRYING
PARALLEL CONDUCTORS

• Two parallel current-carrying wires exert a


force on one another that are equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction.
• If the currents are in the same direction, the
two wires attract one another.
• If the currents are in opposite direction, the
wires repel one another.
EXAMPLE

• Calculate the magnitude of the force per 50 m exerted between two parallel
conductors, if they have a separation of 15 cm, and carry equal current of 225
A in opposite directions.
FORCE EXPERIENCED BY A MOVING
CHARGED PARTICLE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

••  A charge moving through a magnetic field experiences a


force proportional to the charge, velocity, and the
magnetic field.
EXAMPLE

• An electron moving at 200 km/s passes at 90o through a magnetic field of


flux density 0.025 T. The electron has a charge of 1.6 x 10-19 C. What force is
exerted on the electron by the field?
DYNAMICALLY INDUCED EMF

•  emf induced in a wire by moving either the wire or the magnet so that flux
cutting results
STATICALLY INDUCED EMF

•  emf induced in a coil of wire by changing the magnetic flux linking with the
coil.
EXAMPLE

• The flux linking a 500 turn coil is given by Ø = 8t2 weber, where t is in
seconds. Compute the induced emf at t = 2 sec.
SELF INDUCTANCE

INDUCTANCE is the property of a coil of wire to oppose


any change in current in the coil.
2
𝑁 Φ 𝜇 𝐴 𝑁
  𝐿= =
𝐼 𝑙
Where:
L = inductance of a coil
N = number of turns in the coil
Φ = flux linking the coil
I = current in the coil
EXAMPLE

• An air-cored coil 20 cm in length and 1 cm inside diameter has


1000 turns. A total flux of 1 μWb is developed at the center of the
coil. Determine the required current in the coil.
ENERGY STORED IN A COIL

• 
Where:
W = energy stored in the coil
L = inductance of the coil
I = current in the coil
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
EQUIVALENT MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE – mmf

• It is the driving force required to drive the magnetic field through magnetic
circuit by passing an electric current I through a number of turns N of wires.
• Symbol denoted to
 RELUCTANCE -

••  Is the counterpart of electrical resistance, and its units are


ampere-turns per weber.
 PERMEANCE -

• Reciprocal of reluctance
ANALOGY OF ELECTRIC CIRCUIT AND
MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT MAGNETIC CIRCUIT


•  • 
EXAMPLE

• A ferromagnetic core is shown in figure.


Three side of this core is uniform width,
while is somewhat thinner. The depth of
the core is 10 cm. There is a 200-turn coil
wrapped around the left side of the core.
Assuming the relative permeability of
2500, how much flux will be produced by a
1-A input current?
EXAMPLE
• A ferromagnetic core whose mean path length is
40 cm. There is a small gap of 0.05 cm in the
structure of the otherwise whole core. The cross
cross-sectional are of the core is 12 cm2, the
relative permeability of the core is 4000, and the
coil of wire on the core has 400 turns. Assume that
fringing in the air gap increases the effective
cross-sectional area of the air gap by 5%. Find the
• total reluctance
• current required to produce a flux density of 0.5 T.
MUTUAL INDUCED EMF

• EMF induced in a second coil by changing the flux or current in the first coil
(principle of transformer)
TRANSFORMER
INTRODUCTION

• TRANSFORMER is an AC machine that:


• Transfers electrical energy from one electric circuit to another
• Without changing frequency
• By principle of electromagnetic induction
• Has electric circuits that are linked by a common magnetic
circuit
INTRODUCTION

• Primary Winding – winding connected to the supply main


• Secondary Winding – winding connected to the load circuit
• High-Voltage (HV) Winding – winding connected to higher
voltage
• Low-Voltage (HV) Winding – winding connected to lower voltage
INTRODUCTION

• Typical transformer efficiencies at full load lie between


96% and 97%
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER

• The basic principle behind working of


a transformer is the phenomenon of
mutual induction between two windings
linked by common magnetic flux.
• Basically a transformer consists of two
inductive coils; primary winding and
secondary winding.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER

• EMF gets induced in the secondary winding according to 


Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. 
BASIC CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER
TYPES OF TRANSFORMER

• Transformers can be classified on different basis, like


types of construction, types of cooling etc.
ON THE BASIS OF CONSTRUCTION
ON THE BASIS OF THEIR PURPOSE

• Step-up Transformer
• Output voltage of a transformer is higher than its input voltage
• Step-down Transformer
• Output voltage of a transformer is lower than its input voltage
ON THE BASIS OF TYPE OF SUPPLY

• Single-phase Transformer
• Three-phase Transformer
ON THE BASIS OF THEIR USE

• Power transformer: Used in transmission network, high rating


• Distribution transformer: Used in distribution network,
comparatively lower rating than that of power transformers.
• Instrument transformer: Used in relay and protection purpose in
different instruments in industries
• Current transformer (CT)
• Potential transformer (PT)
ON THE BASIS OF COOLING EMPLOYED

• Oil-filled self cooled type


• Oil-filled water cooled type
• Air blast type (air cooled)
EMF EQUATION OF TRANSFORMER

• One alternating electrical source is applied to the primary winding and due
to this, magnetizing current flowing through the primary winding which
produces alternating flux in the core of transformer. This flux links with
both primary and secondary windings. As this flux is alternating in nature,
there must be a rate of change of flux.
• According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction if any coil or
conductor links with any changing flux, there must be an induced EMF in it.
•  𝐸 =4.44 𝑁𝑓 ϕ 𝑚
RATIO OF TRANSFORMER

•Turns Ratio
 
𝐸1 𝑁 1 𝐼 2
= = =𝑎
•Voltage Ratio 𝐸2 𝑁 2 𝐼 1
•Current Ratio   2
𝑍1 𝑁1
•Ohmic Ratio
𝑍2 ( )
=
𝑁2
=𝑎
2
POWER IN AN IDEAL TRANSFORMER

•  Power supplied to the transformer by the primary circuit

• Power supplied by the transformer secondary to its load


EXAMPLE

• The core of a 50 Hz single phase transformer has a cross section of 20 cm2.


Find the EMF per turn if the maximum core density is not to exceed 1.3 T.
EXAMPLE

• A 10-kVA, 60-Hz transformer is replaced by a similar transformer of 50 Hz.


What is the new kVA rating of the transformer?
EXAMPLE
• A single-phase power system consists of a 480-V 60-Hz generator supplying
a load Zload = 4 + j3 Ω through a transmission line of impedance Zline = 0.18 +
j0.24 Ω. A 1:10 step-up transformer is placed at the generator end of the
transmission line and a 10:1 step-down transformer is placed at the load end
of the line. What will the load voltage? What will the transmission line losses
be?
EXACT EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT (NON-IDEAL
TRANSFORMER)
• A non-ideal or a practical transformer has a power losses and voltage drops
within its internal circuits.
APPROXIMATELY EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF
TRANSFORMER
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT REFERRED TO
PRIMARY
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT REFERRED TO
SECONDARY
EXAMPLE

• A 30 kVA, 2000/200 V, single-phase, 50 Hz transformer has primary


resistance of 3.5 Ω and reactance of 4.5 Ω. The secondary resistance and
reactance are 0.015 Ω and 0.02 Ω respectively. Find the equivalent
impedance referred to:
a. Primary
b. Secondary
EXAMPLE

• A 10 kVA, 2000/400 V, single-phase distribution transformer has a primary


and secondary winding impedances of 5 + j10 Ω and 0.2 + j0.45 Ω,
respectively. Find the supply voltage at full load, 80% lagging, when the load
voltage is 440 V.
TEST ON TRANSFORMER

• The circuit parameters are determine either from design


data or from test data.
• The two common tests are as follows:
• OPEN CIRCUIT TEST
• CLOSED CIRCUIT TEST
OPEN CIRCUIT TEST

• During the test, the low side is supplied with rated voltage while
the high side is left open circuited.
• This test, we determined the CORE LOSS of the transformer.
SHORT CIRCUIT TEST

• During the test, the low side is short circuited while the high side
is supplied with voltage adjusted so that the high side will draw
high current.
• This test, we determined the full-load COPPER LOSSES of the
transformer.
EXAMPLE

• The equivalent circuit impedances of a 20 kVA, 8000/240 V, 60 Hz transformer


are to be determined. The open-circuit test and short-circuit test were performed
on the primary side of the transformer, and the following data were taken:
• Open-Circuit Test – Voc = 8000 V, Ioc = 0.214 A, Voc = 400 W
• Short-Circuit Test – Vsc = 489 V, Isc = 2.5 A, Psc = 240 W
Find the impedances of the approximate equivalent circuit referred to the primary
side.
POWER LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER

••  COPPER LOSS (PCU) – Losses due to heating in the transformer


windings due to resistance.
POWER LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER

••  Copper losses of the transformer at x-size of load:


POWER LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER

••  CORE LOSS (PCO) – losses due to HYSTERESIS and EDDY


CURRENT losses in the magnetic circuit (core) of the
transformer.
EXAMPLE

• A transformer has a copper loss of 400 W. Find the copper loss at half-load.
EXAMPLE

• The hysteresis loss in a 6.6 kV, 60 Hz transformer is 480 W. What will be the
loss when the transformer is connected to a 6.9 kV, 40 Hz source.
EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER

• 
EXAMPLE

• A 37.5 kVA transformer has rated core losses and copper losses of 300 W and
500 W. Determine the efficiency at half-load at 0.8 pf lagging.
MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER

••  To operate under maximum efficiency condition, the


copper loss and the core loss must be equal.
EXAMPLE

• A 37.5 kVA transformer has rated core losses and copper losses of 300 W and
500 W. Determine the maximum efficiency at 0.8 pf lagging.
ALL-DAY EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER

• The ratio of the energy output or delivered within a 24-hour


period to the energy input in the same period of time.

• Also called ENERGY-EFFICIENCY


ALL-DAY EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER
• 
EXAMPLE

• A 50 kVA distribution transformer has a full load copper loss of 1 kW and an


iron loss of 1 kW. The transformer is loaded as follows: full-load at unity pf
for 8 hours, one-half load at unity for 6 hours and no-load the rest of the day.
Calculate the all-day efficiency of the transformer.
VOLTAGE REGULATION

• Voltage regulation of a transformer is the percent rise in


voltage in the secondary side after the load is switch-off.
VOLTAGE REGULATION

•  𝑉 𝑁𝐿 − 𝑉 𝐹𝐿 𝐸2 − 𝑉 2
% 𝑉𝑅 = =
𝑉 𝐹𝐿 𝑉2
VOLTAGE REGULATION

• Operating pf lagging – positive voltage regulation

• Operating pf leading – negative voltage regulation


EXAMPLE

• A single-phase transformer rated 7.2 kVA, 1.2 kV/120 V, has the following
winding parameters: r1 = 0.8 Ω, x1 = 1.2 Ω, r2 = 0.01 Ω, and x2 = 0.01 Ω.
Determine the voltage regulation of the transformer when it is delivering
rated load at 0.8 pf lagging.
PER-UNIT ANALYSIS

• 
• Assume Sbase and Vbase
EXAMPLE

• A 10 kVA, 2000/400 V, single-phase distribution transformer has a primary


and secondary winding impedances of 5 + j10 Ω and 0.2 + j0.45 Ω,
respectively. Calculate the supply voltage at full load, 80% lagging, when the
load voltage is 2000 V.
EXAMPLE

• This system contains a 480-V generator connected to an ideal 1:10 step-up


transformer, a transmission line, an ideal 20:1 step-down transformer, and a load.
The impedance of the transmission line is 20 + j60 Ω, and the impedance of the
load is 10/30o Ω. The base value for this system are chosen to be 480 V and 10
kVA at the generator.
• Find the base voltage, current, impedance and apparent power at every point in the power
system.
• Convert this system to its per-unit equivalent circuit.
• Find the power supplied to the load in this system.
• Find the power lost in the transmission line.
EXAMPLE

• A single-phase transformer rated 7.2 kVA, 1.2 kV/120 V, has the following
winding parameters: r1 = 0.8 Ω, x1 = 1.2 Ω, r2 = 0.01 Ω, and x2 = 0.01 Ω.
Determine the voltage regulation of the transformer when it is delivering
rated load at 0.8 pf lagging.
• 
2
( 𝑉 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑑 ) ( 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑤 )
𝑅,𝑋,𝑍 𝑝𝑢𝑛𝑒𝑤 =𝑅,𝑋,𝑍 𝑝𝑢𝑜𝑙𝑑 2
𝑉( 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑤 ) ( 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑑 )
EXAMPLE

• The per unit impedance value of an transformer corresponding to base values


13.2 kV and 30 MVA is 0.2 pu. The per unit value for the base values 13.8
kV and 50 MVA is ____.
EXAMPLE

A 5 MVA, 230/13.8 kV, single phase power transformer has a per unit
resistance of 1 percent and a per unit reactance of 5 percent (data taken from
the transformers nameplate).
a. Find the equivalent circuit referred to the low voltage side of this
transformer.
b. If the voltage on the secondary side 13.8 kV and the power supplied at 0.8
pf lagging, find the voltage regulation of the transformer. Find its
efficiency.
PARALLEL OPERATION
WHY PARALLEL OPERATION OF
TRANSFORMERS IS REQUIRED?

• Increased Load
• Non-availability of large transformer
• Increased reliability
• Transportation is easier for small transformers
CONDITIONS FOR PARALLEL OPERATION

• Same voltage and Turns • Same Frequency rating


Ratio (both primary and • Same Polarity*
secondary voltage rating is
same)*
• Same Phase sequence
• Same Percentage Impedance
and X/R ratio*
• Identical Position of Tap
changer
POLARITY TEST OF TRANSFORMER

• Polarity means the direction of the induced voltages in the


primary and the secondary winding of the transformer. 
EXAMPLE

• Two 2200/100 V transformers are operated in parallel to share a load of 125


kVA at 0.8 pf lagging. Transformers are rated as follows:
A: 100 kVA, 0.9% resistance, 10% reactance
B: 50 kVA, 1% resistance, 5% reactance
Find the kVA share of A and B transformer.
AUTOTRANSFORMER

• Transformer with only one winding common to both primary and


secondary.
TYPES OF AUTOTRANSFORMER
• Power Transformed – power delivered by the uncommon winding
• Power Conducted – (power delivered – power transformed)
EXAMPLE

• 10 kVA, 440/110 V, two-winding transformer is reconnected as a step-down


550/440 V autotransformer. Determine:
a. New kVA rating as an autotransformer
b. Power inductively transferred
c. Power conductively transferred
THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER

• Transformers for three-phase circuits can be construct


in one of two ways.
• Three single-phase transformers
• Three-phase transformer
THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER BANKS

••  Voltage and current ratios in a three single-phase transformer or


three-phase transformer banks are always phase values.
THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER BANKS

• Y-Y Connection
• Has the advantage being
all transformer windings
are subjected only to the
line to line voltage divided
by √3.
THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER BANKS

• Δ-Δ Connection
• Used for moderate voltages,
large current operations
THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER BANKS

• Δ-Y Connection
• Used for stepping up voltages
THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER BANKS

• Y-Δ Connection
• Used for stepping down voltages
EXAMPLE

• Three 1:10 transformers are connected delta-wye for stepping up the 2.3 kV
three-phase source. Determine the secondary line voltage.
EXAMPLE

• Three 30:1 step down transformers are connected Y-Δ for stepping down the
132,000 volts three-phase transmission voltage. Determine the secondary line
voltage.
EXAMPLE

• A 500 kVA, three-pphase, 50 Hz transformer has a voltage ratio (line


voltages) 33/11-kV and delta/star connected. The resistances per phase are:
high voltage 35 ohms, low voltage 0.876 ohm and the iron loss is 3050 W.
Calculate the value of efficiency at full-load and half-load respectively
• At unity pf
• At 0.8 pf lagging
EXAMPLE

• A 50-kVA 13800/208-V ∆-Y distribution transformer has a resistance of I


percent and a reactance of 7 percent per unit.
a. What is the transformer's phase impedance referred to the high-voltage side and low-
voltage?
b. Calculate this transformer's voltage regulation at full load and 0.8 PF lagging.
THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER BANKS

••  Open Delta or V-V Connection


• This bank uses only two transformers. It is used in applications where
load is small.
• Also used if one of the transformers in a Δ-Δ bank fails or under
maintenance procedures.
EXAMPLE

• Two transformers in open delta connection is loaded to its full capacity when
supplying a balanced 3-phase load of 100 kVA. If a third similar transformer
is added forming a delta-delta connection, what will be the rated capacity of
the set?
EXAMPLE

• Two single-phase transformers are connected open-delta and deliver a


balance three-phase load of 69.28 kW at a pf of 0.8 lagging. Calculate the
minimum kVA rating of each transformer.

You might also like