Positivism

Rowan N. Elomina
PHDBM 711 - Philosophical Foundation of Management
 SQL

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SQL

• SQL is a standard language for storing, manipulating and retrieving data in

databases.

• Our SQL tutorial will teach you how to use SQL in: MySQL, SQL Server, MS Access,
Oracle, Sybase, Informix, Postgres, and other database systems.

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 Introduction to SQL

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SQL is a standard language for accessing and manipulating
databases.

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 What is SQL?

• SQL stands for Structured Query Language

• SQL lets you access and manipulate databases
• SQL became a standard of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1986,
and of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1987

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 What Can SQL do?

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• SQL can execute queries against a database
• SQL can retrieve data from a database
• SQL can insert records in a database
• SQL can update records in a database
• SQL can delete records from a database

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• SQL can create new databases
• SQL can create new tables in a database
• SQL can create stored procedures in a database
• SQL can create views in a database
• SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views

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 SQL is a Standard - BUT....

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Although SQL is an ANSI/ISO standard, there are different versions of the SQL language.

However, to be compliant with the ANSI standard, they all support at least the major commands
(such as SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE, INSERT, WHERE) in a similar manner.

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 Using SQL in Your Web Site
To build a web site that shows data from a database, you will need:

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• An RDBMS database program (i.e. MS Access, SQL Server, MySQL)
• To use a server-side scripting language, like PHP or ASP
• To use SQL to get the data you want
• To use HTML / CSS to style the page

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 RDBMS

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• RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System.
• RDBMS is the basis for SQL, and for all modern database systems
such as MS SQL Server, IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft
Access.
• The data in RDBMS is stored in database objects called tables. A
table is a collection of related data entries and it consists of
columns and rows.

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 SQL Syntax

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 Database Tables

• A database most often contains one or more tables. Each table is identified by a
name (e.g. "Customers" or "Orders"). Tables contain records (rows) with data.

• In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database (included in
MS Access and MS SQL Server).

• Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:

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CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany

2 Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Avda. de la México D.F. 05021 Mexico

Emparedados y Constitución 2222
helados

3 Antonio Moreno Antonio Moreno Mataderos 2312 México D.F. 05023 Mexico
Taquería

4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. London WA1 1DP UK

5 Berglunds Christina Berglund Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden

snabbköp

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 SQL SELECT Statement

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The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.

The data returned is stored in a result table, called the result-set.

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SELECT Syntax

SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name;

Here, column1, column2, ... are the field names of the table you want to select data from. If you want to
select all the fields available in the table, use the following syntax:

SELECT * FROM table_name;

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 Demo Database

Below is a selection from the "Customers" table in the Northwind sample database:
CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

1 Alfreds Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany

Futterkiste

2 Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Avda. de la México D.F. 05021 Mexico

Emparedados y Constitución
helados 2222
3 Antonio Moreno Antonio Moreno Mataderos 2312 México D.F. 05023 Mexico
Taquería

4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. London WA1 1DP UK

5 Berglunds Christina Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden

snabbköp Berglund

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 SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement

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The SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement
The SELECT DISTINCT statement is used to return only distinct (different) values.
Inside a table, a column often contains many duplicate values; and sometimes you only
want to list the different (distinct) values.

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SELECT DISTINCT Syntax

SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name;

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 SQL WHERE Clause

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The SQL WHERE Clause
The WHERE clause is used to filter records.

It is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified condition.

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WHERE Syntax

SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

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 SQL AND, OR and NOT Operators

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The SQL AND, OR and NOT Operators
The WHERE clause can be combined with AND, OR, and NOT operators.

The AND and OR operators are used to filter records based on more than one
condition:

The AND operator displays a record if all the conditions separated by AND are TRUE.
The OR operator displays a record if any of the conditions separated by OR is TRUE.
The NOT operator displays a record if the condition(s) is NOT TRUE.

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 Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition1 AND condition2 AND condition3 ...;
OR Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition1 OR condition2 OR condition3 ...;
NOT Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE NOT condition;
AND

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 SQL ORDER BY Keyword

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The SQL ORDER BY Keyword
The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set in ascending or descending order.

The ORDER BY keyword sorts the records in ascending order by default. To sort the
records in descending order, use the DESC keyword.

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ORDER BY Syntax

SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column1, column2, ... ASC|DESC;

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 SQL INSERT INTO Statement

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The SQL INSERT INTO Statement
The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in a table.
INSERT INTO Syntax
It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in two ways:

1. Specify both the column names and the values to be inserted:

INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3, ...)

VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);
2. If you are adding values for all the columns of the table, you do not need to specify the column names in the
SQL query. However, make sure the order of the values is in the same order as the columns in the table. Here, the
INSERT INTO syntax would be as follows:

INSERT INTO table_name

VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);

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 SQL NULL Values

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What is a NULL Value?
A field with a NULL value is a field with no value.

If a field in a table is optional, it is possible to insert a new record or update a record

without adding a value to this field. Then, the field will be saved with a NULL value.

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How to Test for NULL Values?
It is not possible to test for NULL values with comparison operators, such as =, <, or
<>.

We will have to use the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators instead.

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 NULL Syntax

SELECT column_names

FROM table_name

WHERE column_name IS NULL;

IS NOT NULL Syntax

SELECT column_names

FROM table_name

WHERE column_name IS NOT NULL;

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 SQL UPDATE Statement

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The SQL UPDATE Statement
The UPDATE statement is used to modify the existing records in a table.

UPDATE Syntax

UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...
WHERE condition;

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 SQL DELETE Statement

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The SQL DELETE Statement
The DELETE statement is used to delete existing records in a table.

DELETE Syntax

DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;

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SQL TOP, LIMIT, FETCH FIRST or ROWNUM Clause

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The SQL SELECT TOP Clause
The SELECT TOP clause is used to specify the number of records to return.

The SELECT TOP clause is useful on large tables with thousands of records. Returning a
large number of records can impact performance.

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QL Server / MS Access Syntax:

SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

MySQL Syntax:

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
LIMIT number;

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acle 12 Syntax:

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name(s)
FETCH FIRST number ROWS ONLY;

Older Oracle Syntax:

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE ROWNUM <= number;

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Older Oracle Syntax (with ORDER BY):

SELECT *
FROM (SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name ORDER BY column_name(s))
WHERE ROWNUM <= number;

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 SQL MIN() and MAX() Functions

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The SQL MIN() and MAX() Functions
The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected column.

The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column.

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MIN() Syntax

SELECT MIN(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

MAX() Syntax

SELECT MAX(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

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SQL COUNT(), AVG() and SUM() Functions

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The SQL COUNT(), AVG() and SUM() Functions
The COUNT() function returns the number of rows that matches a specified criterion.

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COUNT() Syntax
SELECT COUNT(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
The AVG() function returns the average value of a numeric column. 
AVG() Syntax
SELECT AVG(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
The SUM() function returns the total sum of a numeric column. 
SUM() Syntax
SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

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 SQL LIKE Operator

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The SQL LIKE Operator

The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern in a
column.

There are two wildcards often used in conjunction with the LIKE operator:

 The percent sign (%) represents zero, one, or multiple characters

 The underscore sign (_) represents one, single character

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Here are some examples showing different LIKE operators with '%' and '_' wildcards:
LIKE Operator Description

WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a%' Finds any values that start with "a"

WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%a' Finds any values that end with "a"

WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%or%' Finds any values that have "or" in any position

WHERE CustomerName LIKE '_r%' Finds any values that have "r" in the second position

WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a_%' Finds any values that start with "a" and are at least 2 characters in
length
WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a__%' Finds any values that start with "a" and are at least 3 characters in
length
WHERE ContactName LIKE 'a%o' Finds any values that start with "a" and ends with "o"

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 SQL Wildcards

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SQL Wildcard Characters
A wildcard character is used to substitute one or more characters in a string.

Wildcard characters are used with the LIKE operator. The LIKE operator is used in a
WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern in a column.

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Wildcard Characters in MS Access

Symbol Description Example

* Represents zero or more characters bl* finds bl, black, blue, and blob

? Represents a single character h?t finds hot, hat, and hit

[] Represents any single character within h[oa]t finds hot and hat, but not hit
the brackets

! Represents any character not in the h[!oa]t finds hit, but not hot and hat
brackets

- Represents a range of characters c[a-b]t finds cat and cbt

# Represents any single numeric character 2#5 finds 205, 215, 225, 235, 245, 255,
265, 275, 285, and 295

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Wildcard Characters in SQL Server
Symbol Description Example

% Represents zero or more characters bl% finds bl, black, blue, and blob

_ Represents a single character h_t finds hot, hat, and hit

[] Represents any single character within h[oa]t finds hot and hat, but not hit
the brackets

^ Represents any character not in the h[^oa]t finds hit, but not hot and hat
brackets

- Represents a range of characters c[a-b]t finds cat and cbt

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All the wildcards can also be used in combinations!
Here are some examples showing different LIKE operators with '%' and '_' wildcards:

LIKE Operator Description

WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a%' Finds any values that starts with "a"

WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%a' Finds any values that ends with "a"

WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%or%' Finds any values that have "or" in any position

WHERE CustomerName LIKE '_r%' Finds any values that have "r" in the second position

WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a_%_%' Finds any values that starts with "a" and are at least 3
characters in length

WHERE ContactName LIKE 'a%o' Finds any values that starts with "a" and ends with "o"

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 SQL IN Operator

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The SQL IN Operator
The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause.

The IN operator is a shorthand for multiple OR conditions.

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IN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (value1, value2, ...);
or:

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (SELECT STATEMENT);

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 SQL BETWEEN Operator

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The SQL BETWEEN Operator
The BETWEEN operator selects values within a given range. The values can be
numbers, text, or dates.

The BETWEEN operator is inclusive: begin and end values are included.

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BETWEEN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2;

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 SQL Aliases

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SQL Aliases
SQL aliases are used to give a table, or a column in a table, a temporary name.

Aliases are often used to make column names more readable.

An alias only exists for the duration of that query.

An alias is created with the AS keyword.

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Alias Column Syntax

SELECT column_name AS alias_name
FROM table_name;

Alias Table Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name AS alias_name;

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 SQL Joins

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SQL JOIN
A JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables, based on a related column between
them.
Let's look at a selection from the "Orders" table:
OrderID CustomerID OrderDate

10308 2 1996-09-18

10309 37 1996-09-19

10310 77 1996-09-20

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Then, look at a selection from the "Customers" table:
Customer ID CustomerName ContactName Country

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Germany

2 Ana Trujillo Emparedados y Ana Trujillo Mexico

helados

3 Antonio Moreno Taquería Antonio Moreno Mexico

Notice that the "Customer ID" column in the "Orders" table refers to the "Customer ID" in the "Customers" table. The relationship between the two tables
above is the "Customer ID" column.

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 SQL INNER JOIN Keyword

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SQL INNER JOIN Keyword

The INNER JOIN keyword selects records that have matching values in both tables.
INNER JOIN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

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 SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword

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SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword

The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all records from the left table (table1), and the
matching records from the right table (table2). The result is 0 records from the right
side, if there is no match.

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LEFT JOIN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

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 SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword

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SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword

The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all records from the right table (table2), and the
matching records from the left table (table1). The result is 0 records from the left side,
if there is no match.

RIGHT JOIN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

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 SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Keyword

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SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Keyword

The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all records when there is a match in left
(table1) or right (table2) table records.

Tip: FULL OUTER JOIN and FULL JOIN are the same.

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FULL OUTER JOIN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
FULL OUTER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name
WHERE condition;

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