Chapter 2

Organizing and Graphing Data

Introductory Statistics
Ninth Edition

Prem Mann
Opening Example
What is your political ideology? Do you classify yourself
a consistently liberal person or a consistently conservative
person, a mostly liberal person or a mostly conservative
person, or are you someone who belongs to a group called
“mixed”? Pew Research Center conducted a national
survey of 10,013 adults in 2014 to find the political views
of adults in the United States. To see the results of this
study, see Case Study 2-1.

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2.1 Organizing and Graphing Qualitative Data

Definition
Data recorded in the sequence in which they are collected
and before they are processed or ranked are called raw
data.

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Table 2.1 Ages of 50 Students

21 19 24 25 29 34 26 27 37 33
18 20 19 22 19 19 25 22 25 23
25 19 31 19 23 23 23 19 23 26
22 28 21 20 22 22 21 20 19 21
25 23 23 37 27 23 21 25 21 24

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Table 2.2 Status of 50 Students

J F SO SE J J SE J J J
F F J F F F SE SO SE J
J F SE SO SO F J F SE SE
SO SE J SO SO J J SO F SO
SE SE F SE J SO F J SO SO

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Organizing and Graphing Qualitative Data

• Frequency Distributions
• Relative Frequency and Percentage Distributions
• Graphical Presentation of Qualitative Data

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Table 2.3 Worries About Not Having Enough
Money to Pay Normal Monthly Bills

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Frequency Distributions
Definition
A frequency distribution of a qualitative variable lists
all categories and the number of elements that belong to
each of the categories.

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Example 2-1 (1 of 2)
A sample of 30 persons who often consume donuts were
asked what variety of donuts is their favorite. The
responses from these 30 persons are as follows:

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Example 2-1 (2 of 2)
glazed filled other plain glazed other
frosted filled filled glazed other frosted
glazed plain other glazed glazed filled
frosted plain other other frosted filled
filled other frosted glazed glazed filled

Construct a frequency distribution table for these data.

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Example 2-1: Solution
Table 2.4 Frequency Distribution of Favorite Donut
Variety
Donut Variety Tally Frequency (f)
Glazed 8 tally marks
8
Filled 7 tally marks
7
Frosted 5 tally marks
5
Plain 3 tally marks
3
Other 7 tally marks
7
Blank Blank Sum = 30

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Relative Frequency and Percentage
Distributions (1 of 2)

Calculating Relative Frequency of a Category

Frequency of that category

Relative frequency of a category 
Sum of all frequencies

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Relative Frequency and Percentage
Distributions (2 of 2)

Calculating Percentage

Percentage   Relative frequency   100%

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Example 2-2
Determine the relative frequency and percentage
distributions for the data in Table 2.4.

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Example 2-2: Solution
Table 2.5 Relative Frequency and Percentage Distributions
of Favorite Donut Variety
Donut Variety Relative Frequency Percentage
Glazed 8 over
8 30 = .267
 .267 .267(100) = 26.7
30
7
Filled 7 over 30
.233= .233 .233(100) = 23.3
30
5
Frosted 5 over
30
30
.167= .167 .167(100) = 16.7
3
Plain 3 over
30
30
.100= .100 .100(100) = 10.0
7
Oilier 7 over30
.233= .233 .233(100) = 23.3
30

Blank Sum = 1.000 Sum = 100%

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Case Study 2-1 Ideological Composition of
the U.S. Public, 2014

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Graphical Presentation of Qualitative Data (1 of
3)

Definition
A graph made of bars whose heights represent the
frequencies of respective categories is called a bar graph.

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Figure 2.1 Bar Graph for the Frequency
Distribution of Table 2.4

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Graphical Presentation of Qualitative Data (2 of 3)

Definition
A Pareto chart is a bar graph with bars arranged by their
heights in descending order. To make a Pareto chart,
arrange the bars according to their heights such that the
bar with the largest height appears first on the left side,
and then subsequent bars are arranged in descending order
with the bar with the smallest height appearing last on the
right side.

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Figure 2.2 Pareto Chart for the Frequency
Distribution of Table 2.4

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Case Study 2-2 Millennials’ Views on their
Level of Day-to-Day Banking Knowledge

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Graphical Presentation of Qualitative Data (3 of 3)

Definition
A circle divided into portions that represent the relative
frequencies or percentages of a population or a sample
belonging to different categories is called a pie chart.

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Figure 2.2 Pie Chart for the Percentage
Distribution of Table 2.5

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2.2 Organizing and Graphing Quantitative Data

• Frequency Distributions
• Constructing Frequency Distribution Tables
• Relative and Percentage Distributions
• Graphing Grouped Data

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Table 2.6 Weekly Earnings of 100 Employees
of a Company

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Frequency Distributions for Quantitative
Data (1 of 3)
Definition
A frequency distribution for quantitative data lists all
the classes and the number of values that belong to each
class. Data presented in the form of a frequency
distribution are called grouped data.

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Frequency Distributions for Quantitative
Data (2 of 3)
Finding Class Width

Width of a class = Lower limit of the next class  Lower limit of the current class

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Frequency Distributions for Quantitative
Data (3 of 3)
Calculating Class Midpoint or Mark

Lower limit  Upper limit

Class midpoint or mark 
2

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Constructing Frequency Distribution Table

Calculation of Class Width

Largest value  Smallest value

Approximate class width 
Number of classes

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Table 2.7 Class Widths and Class Midpoints
for Table 2.6

Class Limits Class Width Class Midpoint

801 to 1000 200 900.5
1001 to 1200 200 1100.5
1201 to 1400 200 1300.5
1401 to 1600 200 1500.5
1601 to 1800 200 1700.5
1801 to 2000 200 1900.5

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Example 2-3 (1 of 4)
The following table gives the value (in million dollars)
of each of the 30 baseball teams as estimated by Forbes
magazine (source: Forbes Magazine, April 13, 2015).
Construct a frequency distribution table.

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Example 2-3 (2 of 4)
Value Team Value (millions or dollars)
Arizona Diamondbacks 840
Atlanta Braves 1150
Baltimore Orioles 1000
Boston Red Sox 2100
Chicago Cubs 1800
Chicago White Sox 975
Cincinnati Reds 885
Cleveland Indians 825
Colorado Rockies 855
Detroit Tigers 1125
Houston Astros 800

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Example 2-3 (3 of 4)
Value Team Value (millions or dollars)
Kansas City Royals 700
Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim 1300
Los Angeles Dodgers 2400
Miami Marlins 650
Milwaukee Brewers 875
Minnesota Twins 895
New York Mets 1350
New York Yankees 3200
Oakland Athletics 725
Philadelphia Phillies 1250
Pittsburgh Pirates 900

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Example 2-3 (4 of 4)
Value Team Value (millions or dollars)
San Diego Padres 890
San Francisco Giants 2000
Seattle Mariners 1100
St. Louis Cardinals 1400
Tampa Bay Rays 605
Texas Rangers 1220
Toronto Blue Jays 870
Washington Nationals 1280

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Example 2-3: Solution
The minimum value is 605, and the maximum value is 3200.
Suppose we decide to group these data using six classes of equal
width. Then,
3200  605
Approximate width of each class   432.5
6
Now we round this approximate width to a convenient number, say
450. The lower limit of the first class can be taken as 605 or any
number less than 605. Suppose we take 601 as the lower limit of the
first class. Then our classes will be

601–1050, 1051–1500, 1501–1950, 1951–2400, and 2851–3300

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Table 2.8 Frequency Distribution for the
Values of Baseball Teams, 2015
Value of a Team Number of Teams
(in million$) Tally (f)
601–1050 16 tally marks 16
1051–1500 9 tally marks 9
1051–1950 1 tally mark 1
1951–2400 3 tally marks 3
2401–2850 Blank
0
2851–3300 1 tally mark 1
Blank Blank
 f  30
Summation of f = 30

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Relative Frequency and Percentage
Distributions
Calculating Relative Frequency and Percentage
Frequencyof that class f
Relativefrequencyof a class = =
Sumof allfrequencies f
Percentage =  Relativefrequency  100%

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Example 2-4
Calculate the relative frequencies and percentages for
Table 2.8.

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Example 2-4: Solution
Table 2.9 Relative Frequency and Percentage Distribution for the
Values of Baseball Teams

Value of a Team Relative

(in million $) Frequency Percentage
16
601-1050 16 over
30
30 = .533
 .533 53.3
9
1051- 1500 9 over
30
 30
.300 = .300 30.0
1
1501-1950 1 over .033
30 30 = .033 3.3
3
1951-2400 3 over .100
30 30 = .100 10.0
0
 .000
2401-2850 0 over
30 30 = .000 0.0
1
2851-3300 1  .033
over
30 30 = .033 3.3

Blank Sum = 1.000 Sum = 100%

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Graphing Grouped Data (1 of 2)
Definition
A histogram is a graph in which classes are marked on
the horizontal axis and the frequencies, relative
frequencies, or percentages are marked on the vertical
axis. The frequencies, relative frequencies, or percentages
are represented by the heights of the bars. In a histogram,
the bars are drawn adjacent to each other.

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Figure 2.4 Frequency Histogram for Table 2.8

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Figure 2.5 Relative Frequency Histogram
for Table 2.9

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Case Study 2-3 Car Insurance Premiums
per Year in 50 States

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Graphing Grouped Data (2 of 2)
Definition
A graph formed by joining the midpoints of the tops of
successive bars in a histogram with straight lines is called
a polygon.

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Figure 2.6 Frequency Polygon for Table 2.8

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Case Study 2-4 Hours Worked in a Typical
Week by Full-Time U.S. Workers

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Figure 2.7 Frequency Distribution Curve

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Example 2-5 (1 of 6)
Based on the information collected by American
Petroleum Institute, Table 2.10 lists the total of federal
and state taxes (in cents per gallon) on gasoline for each
of the 50 states as of April 1, 2015 (api.org).

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Example 2-5 (2 of 6)
State Gasoline Tax
Alabama 39.3
Alaska 29.7
Arizona 37.4
Arkansas 40.2
California 66.0
Colorado 40.4
Connecticut 59.3
Delaware 41.4
Florida 54.8
Georgia 44.9
Hawaii 62.1

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Example 2-5 (3 of 6)
State Gasoline Tax
Idaho 43.4
Illinois 52.5
Indiana 51.3
Iowa 50.4
Kansas 42.4
Kentucky 44.4
Louisiana 38.4
Maine 48.4
Maryland 48.7
Massachusetts 44.9
Michigan 51.5

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Example 2-5 (4 of 6)
State Gasoline Tax
Minnesota 47.0
Mississippi 37.2
Missouri 35.7
Montana 46.2
Nebraska 44.9
Nevada 51.6
New Hampshire 42.2
New Jersey 32.9
New Mexico 37.3
New York 62.9
North Carolina 54.7

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Example 2-5 (5 of 6)
State Gasoline Tax
North Dakota 41.4
Ohio 46.4
Oklahoma 35.4
Oregon 49.5
Pennsylvania 70.0
Rhode Island 51.4
South Carolina 35.2
South Dakota 48.4
Tennessee 39.8
Texas 38.4
Utah 42.9

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Example 2-5 (6 of 6)
State Gasoline Tax
Vermont 48.9
Virginia 40.8
Washington 55.9
West Virginia 53.0
Wisconsin 51.3
Wyoming 42.4

Construct a frequency distribution table. Calculate the

relative frequencies and percentages for all classes.

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Example 2-5: Solution
The minimum value in the data set of Table 2.10 is 29.7,
and the maximum value is 70. Suppose we decide to
group these data using five classes of equal width. Then,
70  29.7
Approximate width of a class   8.06
5
We round this to a more convenient number, say 9, and
take 9 as the width of each class. We can take the lower
limit of the first class equal to 29.7 or any number lower
than 29.7. If we start the first class at 27, the classes will be
written as 27 to less than 36, 36 to less than 45, and so on.
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Table 2.11 Frequency, Relative Frequency, and
Percentage Distributions of the Total Federal and
State Tax on Gasoline
Federal and State
Tax (in cents) Frequency Relative Frequency Percentage
27 to less than 36 5 .10 10
36 to less than 45 21 .42 42
45 to less than 54 16 .32 32
54 to less than 63 6 .12 12
63 to less than 72 2 .04 4
Blank Sum = 50 Sum = 1.00 Sum = 100

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Case Study 2-5 How Many Cups of Coffee
Do You Drink a Day?

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Example 2-6
The administration in a large city wanted to know the distribution of
vehicles owned by households in that city. A sample of 40 randomly
selected households from this city produced the following data on
the number of vehicles owned:

5 1 1 2 0 1 1 2 1 1
1 3 3 0 2 5 1 2 3 4
2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 1
4 2 1 1 2 1 1 4 1 3

Construct a frequency distribution table for these data using

single-valued classes.
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Example 2-6: Solution
Table 2.12 Frequency Distribution of Vehicles Owned

Number of The observations assume

Vehicles Owned Households (f)
only six distinct values: 0,
0 2
1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Each of
1 18
these six values is used as a
2 11
class in the frequency
3 4
distribution in Table 2.12.
4 3
5 2
Blank
f
Summation of f = 40
 40

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Figure 2.8 Bar Graph for Table 2.12

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Cumulative Frequency Distribution
Definition
A cumulative frequency distribution gives the total
number of values that fall below the upper boundary
of each class.

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Example 2-7
Using the frequency distribution of Table 2.8, reproduced here,
prepare a cumulative frequency distribution for the values of the
baseball teams.

Value of a team Number of Teams

(in million $) (f)
601–1050 16
1051–1500 9
1051–1950 1
1951–2400 3
2401–2850 0
2851–3300 1

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Example 2-7: Solution
Table 2.13 Cumulative Frequency Distribution of
Values of Baseball Teams, 2015
Class Limits Cumulative Frequency
601–1050 16
601–1500 16 + 9 = 25
601–1950 16 + 9 + 1 = 26
601–2400 16 + 9 + 1 + 3 = 29
601–2850 16 + 9 + 1 + 3 + 0 = 29
601–3300 16 + 9 +1 + 3 + 0 + 1 = 30

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Cumulative Frequency Distributions
Calculating Cumulative Relative Frequency and
Cumulative Percentage

Cumulative frequency of a class

Cumulative relative frequency 
Total observations in the data set
Cumulative percentage   Cumulative relative frequency   100

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Table 2.14 Cumulative Relative Frequency and
Cumulative Percentage Distributions for Values of
Baseball Teams, 2015
Cumulative Cumulative
Class Limits Relative Frequency Percentage
601-1050 16 30 = .5333
16 over 53.33
 .5333
30
601-1500 25 over
25 30 = .8333
 .8333 83.33
30

601-1950 26 over
26 30 = .8667
 .8667 86.67
30
601-2400 29 over
29 30 = .9667
 .9667
96.67
30
601-2850 29 over
29 30 = .9667 96.67
 .9667
30
601-3300 30 over
30 30 = 1.000 100.00
 1.000
30

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Shapes of Histograms
1. Symmetric
2. Skewed
3. Uniform or Rectangular

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Figure 2.9 Symmetric Histograms

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Figure 2.10 (a) A Histogram Skewed to the
Right; (b) A Histogram Skewed to the Left

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Figure 2.11 A Histogram with Uniform
Distribution

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Figure 2.12 (a) and (b) Symmetric Frequency Curves; (c) Frequency
Curve Skewed to the Right; (d) Frequency Curve Skewed to the Left

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Truncating Axes
1. Changing the scale either on one or on both axes
—that is, shortening or stretching one or both of
the axes.
2. Truncating the frequency axis—that is, starting
the frequency axis at a number greater than zero.

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Figure 2.13 Bar Graph without Truncation
of the Vertical Axis

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Figure 2.13 Bar Graph with Truncation
of the Vertical Axis

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2.3 Stem-and-Leaf Displays
Definition
In a stem-and-leaf display of quantitative data, each
value is divided into two portions–a stem and a leaf. The
leaves for each stem are shown separately in a display.

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Example 2-8
The following are the scores of 30 college students on a
statistics test:
75 52 80 96 65 79 71 87 93 95
69 72 81 61 76 86 79 68 50 92
83 84 77 64 71 87 72 92 57 98

Construct a stem-and-leaf display.

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Example 2-8: Solution (1 of 2)
To construct a stem-and-leaf display for these scores, we
split each score into two parts. The first part contains the
first digit, which is called the stem. The second part
contains the second digit, which is called the leaf. We
observe from the data that the stems for all scores are 5, 6,
7, 8, and 9 because all the scores lie in the range 50 to 98.

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Figure 2.15 Stem-and-Leaf Display

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Example 2-8: Solution (2 of 2)
After we have listed the stems, we read the leaves for
all scores and record them next to the corresponding
stems on the right side of the vertical line. The
complete stem-and-leaf display for scores is shown in
Figure 2.15.

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Figure 2.16 Stem-and-Leaf Display of Test Scores

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Example 2-8: Solution
The leaves for each stem of the stem-and-leaf display of
Figure 2.16 are ranked (in increasing order) and presented
in Figure 2.17.

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Figure 2.17 Ranked Stem-and-Leaf Display
of Test Scores

One advantage of a stem-and-leaf display is that we do

not lose information on individual observations.
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Example 2-9
The following data give the monthly rents paid by a
sample of 30 households selected from a small town.
880 1081 721 1075 1023 775 1235 750 965 960
1210 985 1231 932 850 825 1000 915 1191 1035
1151 630 1175 932 1100 1140 750 1140 1370 1280

Construct a stem-and-leaf display for these data.

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Example 2-9: Solution
Figure 2.18 Stem-and-Leaf Display of Rents

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Example 2-10
The following stem-and-leaf
display is prepared for the number
of hours that 25 students spent
working on computers during the
last month.
Prepare a new stem-and-leaf
display by grouping the stems.

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Example 2-10: Solution
Figure 2.19 Grouped Stem-and-Leaf Display

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Example 2-11
Consider the following stem-and-leaf display, which has
only two stems. Using the split stem procedure, rewrite the
stem-and-leaf display.

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Example 2-11: Solution
Figure 2.20 & 2.21 Split Stem-and-Leaf Display

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2.4 Dotplots
Definition
Values that are very small or very large relative to the
majority of the values in a data set are called outliers or
extreme values.

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Example 2-12
A statistics class that meets once a week at night from
7:00 PM to 9:45 PM has 33 students. The following data
give the ages (in years) of these students. Create a dotplot
for these data.

34 21 49 37 23 22 33 23 21 20 19
33 23 38 32 31 22 20 24 27 33 19
23 21 31 31 22 20 34 21 33 27 21

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Example 2-12: Solution (1 of 2)
Step1. Draw a horizontal line with numbers that cover the given
data as shown in Figure 2.22

Step 2. Place a dot above the value on the numbers line that
represents each of the ages listed above. After all the dots are
placed, Figure 2.23 gives the complete dotplot.

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Example 2-12: Solution (2 of 2)
As we examine the dotplot of Figure 2.23, we notice that
there are two clusters (groups) of data. Eighteen of the 33
students (which is almost 55%) are 19 to 24 years old, and
10 of the 33 students (which is about 30%) are 31 to 34
years old. There is one student who is 49 years old and is
an outlier.

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Technology Instructions: Chapter 2 (1 of 12)
TI-84 Color/TI-84

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Technology Instructions: Chapter 2 (2 of 12)
TI-84 Color/TI-84

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Technology Instructions: Chapter 2 (3 of 12)
TI-84 Color/TI-84

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Technology Instructions: Chapter 2 (4 of 12)
TI-84 Color/TI-84

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Technology Instructions: Chapter 2 (5 of 12)
Minitab

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Technology Instructions: Chapter 2 (6 of 12)
Minitab

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Technology Instructions: Chapter 2 (7 of 12)
Minitab

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Technology Instructions: Chapter 2 (8 of 12)
Minitab

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Technology Instructions: Chapter 2 (9 of 12)
Minitab

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Technology Instructions: Chapter 2 (10 of 12)
Excel

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Technology Instructions: Chapter 2 (11 of 12)
Excel

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Technology Instructions: Chapter 2 (12 of 12)
Excel

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