UNIT FOUR

MARGINALIZED, MINORITIES, AND

VULNERABLE GROUPS
 Definition of concepts
What is marginalization? Marginalization is defined as a
treatment of a person or social group as minor, insignificant or
peripheral. Marginalization involves exclusion of certain
groups from social interactions, marriage relations, sharing
food and drinks, and working and living together.
Who are mostly marginalized? There are marginalized social
groups in every society and culture. Women, children, older
people, and people with disabilities are among marginalized
groups across the world. The nature and level of
marginalization varies from society to society as a result of
cultural diversity. Religious, ethnic, and racial minorities are
also among social groups marginalized in different societies
and cultures. Crafts workers such as tanners, potters, and
ironsmiths are marginalized in many parts of Ethiopia.
What is vulnerability? Vulnerability refers to the state of being
exposed to physical or emotional injuries. Vulnerable groups are people
exposed to possibilities of attack, harms or mistreatment. As a result,
vulnerable persons/groups need special attention, protection and
support. For example, children and people with disabilities need special
support and protection as they are exposed to risks and neglect because
of their age and disabilities. Universities have introduced special needs
education for students with disabilities to give them special support.
Minority groups: The phrase ‘minority group’ refers to a small group
of people within a community, region, or country. In most cases,
minority groups are different from the majority population in terms of
race, religion, ethnicity, and language. For example, black Americans
are minorities in the United States of America. Christians could be
minorities in a Muslim majority country. Muslims can be minorities in
a predominantly Hindu society. Hence, minority groups can be ethnic
minorities, religious minorities, or racial minorities in a given
community, region of country.
 Gender-based marginalization
Gender inequality involves discrimination on a group of people based on their
gender. Gender inequality mainly arises from socio-cultural norms. The
manifestations of gender inequality varies from culture to culture. Girls and
women face negative discrimination in societies across the world. Women are
exposed to social and economic inequalities involving unfair distribution of
wealth, income and job opportunities.
Gender-based marginalization is a global problem. It involves exclusion of girls
and women from a wide range of opportunities and social services. Gender
disparities in education is a good example. Girls in developing countries,
especially those who live in remote and rural areas, are excluded from formal
education. The enrollment of girls in higher education is much lower than that of
boys. Women do not enjoy equal employment opportunities. They do not have
equal rights in terms of property ownership and inheritance. Women and girls are
also vulnerable to gender-based violence such as rape, early/child marriage,
abduction/forced marriage, domestic violence and female genital
cutting/mutilation.
There are some customary practices that affect the health and wellbeing of girls
and women. These practices collectively are called harmful traditional practices
(HTPs).
 Female Genital Mutilation/cutting
Female genital mutilation (FGM) includes all procedures that
involve the partial or total removal of external genitalia or
other injury to the female genital organs (such as stitching of
the labia majora or pricking of the clitoris) for non-medical
reasons . In addition to having no health benefits, FGM
interferes with normal body functions and can have a
negative effect on several aspects of a girl’s or woman’s life,
including her physical, mental and sexual health and her
relationship with her husband or partner and other close
family members.
 WHERE AND AT WHAT AGE IS
FGM PERFORMED?
FGM is a global concern. To date, the practice is reported in 30
countries in Africa and in a few countries in Asia and the Middle
East. Some forms of FGM are also reported to occur among
certain ethnic groups in Central and South America, and Eastern
Europe. The rise in international migration has also increased
the number of girls and women living in the various diasporas
populations, including in Australia, Europe, New Zealand and
North America, and who have undergone or may undergo the
practice.
The age at which girls experience FGM varies across countries
and cultural groups. In some communities, FGM is performed
before girls turn five years old, but in others, girls are cut when
they are between the ages of five and 14 years, or prior to
marriage.
 WHY DO COMMUNITIES PRACTISE FGM?
RESPECT FOR TRADITION
FGM is often seen as part of the history and cultural tradition of the community.
Community members, including the women, often support and continue the
practice because they see it as a sign of respect towards the elder members of the
community.
RITE OF PASSAGE
In many cultures, FGM constitutes an important rite of passage into adulthood for
girls. Often the event is marked with a ceremony and/or celebration. It may be
considered a necessary step towards being viewed as a respectable adult woman.
SOCIAL CONVENTION
Where FGM is widely practiced, it is considered a social convention. Those who
adhere to the practice may be better accepted in their communities, while those
who do not may face condemnation, harassment and exclusion.
ENHANCE FERTILITY
In some practicing communities, women and men believe that if a woman is not cut
she will not be able to become pregnant or she may face difficulties during labor.
 WHY…
MARRIAGEABILITY
There is often an expectation that men will marry only women who have undergone FGM.
The desire and pressure to be married, and the economic and social security that may come
with marriage, can perpetuate the practice in some settings.
ENSURE VIRGINITY, CHASTITY AND FAITHFULNESS
FGM is believed to safeguard a girl’s or woman’s virginity prior to marriage and ensure
fidelity after marriage. Therefore, families may believe that FGM protects a girl’s and her
family’s honor.
CLEANLINESS AND BEAUTY
In some communities, FGM is performed in order to make girls “clean” and beautiful.
Cleanliness may refer to the body; female genitals that are cut or closed are sometimes
seen as more hygienic and beautiful, but it may also refer to spiritual purity.
FEMININITY
The removal of genital parts that are considered masculine (i.e. the clitoris) is considered to
make girls more feminine, respectable and beautiful.
RELIGION
Some communities believe that FGM is a religious requirement, and some religious leaders
may promote the practice, even though it is not mentioned in any major religious texts.
CLASSIFICATION OF FGM
 TYPE I
 Partial or total removal of the clitoral glans ( the external and visible
part of the clitoris, which is a sensitive part of the female genitals,
which is a sensitive part of the female genitals, with the function of
providing sexual pleasure to the woman), and/or the prepuce/clitoral
hood ( the fold of skin surrounding the clitoral glans).
 Type IA: removal of the prepuce/clitoral hood only.
 Type IB . Removal of the clitoral glans with the prepuce/clitoral hood.
 TYPE II
 Partial or total removal of the clitoral glans and the labia minora (the
inner folds of the vulva), with or without removal of the labia majora
(the outer folds of skin of the vulva).
 Type IIA. Removal of the labia minora only.
 Type IIB. Partial or total removal of the clitoral glans and the labia
minora (prepuce/clitoral hood may be affected).
 Type IIC. Partial or total removal of the clitoral glans, the labia minora
and the labia majora (prepuce/clitoral hood may be affected).
Type III. (Often referred to as infibulations).
Narrowing of the vaginal opening with the creation of a
covering seal. The seal is formed by cutting and
repositioning the labia minora, or labia majora. The
covering of the vaginal opening is done with or without
removal of the clitoral prepuce/clitoral hood and glans
(Type I FGM).
Type IIIA. Removal and repositioning of the labia
minora.
Type IIIB. Removal and repositioning of the labia
majora.
Type IV. All other harmful procedures to the female
genitalia for non-medical purposes, for example pricking,
piercing, incising, scraping and cauterization.
 Marginalized occupational groups
According to anthropological findings, there are occupational
marginalized groups in many parts of Ethiopia. The following are
marginalized occupational groups in our country: tanners, potters,
weavers and ironsmiths. These craft-workers have different names
in different parts of the country. Craft-workers such as potters and
tanners are considered as impure and excluded from social
interactions, ownership of economic resources (e.g., land), and
participation in associations and celebrations.
Marginalized occupation groups are people engaged in craftworks such as
pottery, tannery, and iron works. Craft-workers in Ethiopia produce several
articles such as traditional hand-woven clothes, household utensils, and farm
tools. Crafts workers lead a life of paradoxes. They have important contributions
to their communities; however, they are marginalized by the dominant and
majority groups. For examples, weavers produce cultural clothes highly
demanded by thousands and millions of people. Many people use cultural clothes
during annual celebrations, religious holidays, weddings, culture days, and
mourning. The demand of cultural dresses has been increasing in the last three
decades. People dress cultural clothes in different occasions such as cultural
festivals, days of nations and nationalities, and religious celebrations. Despite
their contributions, weavers are marginalized from the wider society.
 Major types of marginalization in Ethiopia
Spatial marginalization
Craft-workers settle/live on the outskirts of villages, near to forests, on poor land, around steep
slopes.
They are segregated at market places (they sell their goods at the outskirts of markets).
When they walk along the road, they are expected to give way for others and walk on the lower side
of the road.
Economic marginalization
Craft-workers are excluded from certain economic activities including production and exchanges. In
some cultures they are not allowed to cultivate crops.
They have a limited access to land and land ownership.
Social marginalization
Craft-workers are excluded from intermarriage, they do not share burial places with others; they are
excluded from membership of associations such as iddirs.
When marginalized groups are allowed to participate in social events, they must sit on the floor
separately-sometimes outside the house or near the door.
Cultural marginalization
Occupational minorities are labeled as impure and polluting; they are accused of eating animals that
have died without being slaughtered;
Occupational minorities are also considered unreliable, lacking morality, respect and shame.
 Age-based vulnerability
What is age-based vulnerability? Age-based vulnerability
is susceptibility of people, especially children and older
people, to different forms of attack, physical injuries and
emotional harms. For example, children and older people
(people aged 60 and above) are exposed to possibilities of
attack, harm and mistreatment because of their age. As a
result, vulnerable persons/groups need special attention,
protection and support.
 Children: Discrimination/vulnerability
Children are among vulnerable groups exposed to harm because of their age. Both
boys and girls are exposed to some harm and abuse in the hands of older people.
However, girls are exposed to double marginalization and discrimination because of the
gender. Child girls are exposed to various kinds of harm before they reach at the age of
maturity.
Early/child marriage: Early marriage refers to marriage which involves girls below
the age of 18. The prevalence of early marriage is declining in Ethiopia and other
African countries. However, it is still widely practiced in different regions of Ethiopia.
According to international human rights conventions, early marriage is regarded as
violation of the rights of the child. Early marriage has the following major harmful
consequences:
Young girls enter into marital relation when they are too young to give their consent
to get married.
inhibits girls' personal development; it hinders girls’ chance to education and future
professional development.
exposes young girls to sexual abuse by their older husbands.
leads to early pregnancies, which increases risks of diseases and complications
during delivery, fistula, and death of the mother or child.
 Factors encouraging early marriage
Social norms: Social norms contribute a lot for the continuation of
early marriage in many parts of the world. Chastity of girls is one
of the social norms that influence parents and relatives to protecting
girls from pre-marital sex. The value attached to virginity is another
driver of early marriage. Girl’s reputation and family social status
are associated with sexual purity of girls. Parents incline to marry
off their daughter before the girl reach at the stage of poverty to
avoid the possibility of pre-marital sex and love affair.
Economic factors are among the major factors that drive child
marriage. In many areas of Ethiopia marriage provides economic
security for young girls. Hence, parents, in some cases girls,
support early marriage for economic benefits such as access to land
and other resources. Parents’ desire to get a good husband for their
daughter is also another reason.
 Marginalization of older persons
 The phrase ‘older people’ refers to adults with the age of 60 and above. The
number of older people is increasing globally. According to the estimation of the
United Nations (2009), the number of older people will increase to 2 billion by
2050. Eighty percent of the 2 billion older persons would live in low and middle-
income countries. This means Africa would have a large number of older adults
after 30 years. Ethiopia, the second populous country in Africa, would also have
millions of older persons after three decades.
 Ageism is a widely observed social problem in the world. Ageism refer to
stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination against people based on their age.
Older women and men enjoyed a certain level of support and respected in the
past. This was true in many cultures of Ethiopia in the past. Things have been
changing in recent times. Older people are facing various problems as a result of
modernization, globalization, and urbanization. Older people are exposed to
social exclusion because of their lower social and economic status. In most
cases, older people are excluded from social, cultural, political and economic
interactions in their communities. Older persons are marginalized because they
are considered as social burden rather than social assets. Communities do not
provide older persons with opportunities to contribute to their communities.
 Religious and ethnic minorities
Religious and ethnic minorities groups also face different forms of marginalization.
There are several examples of marginalization and discrimination targeting religious
and ethnic minorities in the world. Let us mention two examples.
 The Jewish people suffered from discrimination and persecution in different parts of
the world. They were targets of extermination in Germany and other Western
European countries because of their identity.
 Muslim Rohingyas are among the most marginalized and persecuted people in the
world. According to Abdu Hasnat Milton et al (2017), the Rohingya are ‘one of the
most ill-treated and persecuted refugee groups in the world’. In recent years, more
than half-a-million Rohingyas fled from their homes in Nyanmar to neighboring
countries such as Bangladesh.As people living in refugee camps, the Rohingyas are
vulnerable to problems such as malnutrition and physical and sexual abuse.
These are among the widely known examples of discrimination against religious and
ethnic minorities. The problem is not limited to specific areas, regions or countries.
Although the level of the problem varies in different contexts, religious and ethnic
minorities face different forms of discrimination in many parts of the world.
 Human right approaches and inclusiveness: Anthropological perspectives
All forms of marginalization and discrimination against
vulnerable and minority groups contradict the principles
of human rights. The major human rights conventions
denounce discrimination against women, children,
people with disability, older people and other minority
and vulnerable groups. People with disabilities have the
right to inclusive services and equal opportunities. The
human rights of women and girls include right to be free
from harmful traditional practices such as forced
marriage, early marriage, and female genital cutting. Any
form of discrimination, exclusion, and gender-based
violence also violate the human rights girls and women.