Methods and

Techniques Used
in Management
Development
The most popular training methods used by
organization can be classified as either on-the-job or
off-the-job training.

On-the-Job Training
The most widely used methods of training take place
on the job. On-the-job training is normally given by a
senior employee or a manager. The employee is
shown how to perform the job and allowed to do it
under the trainer’s supervision.
 On-the-Job Training
The advantages of on-the-job training are that
no special facilities are required and the new
employee does productive work during the learning
process.
It is learning by doing.
For jobs that either are difficult to simulate or can
be learned quickly by watching and doing, on-the-
job training makes sense.
On-the-jobs training avoid the major difficulties
with off-the-job training: lack of relevance and
reinforcement in the actual job situation.  
 On-the-Job Training
Although on-the-job training can be inexpensive and
simple, there are risks.
Damaged machinery, low quality, unsatisfied
customers, or less than optimal performance are
examples.
Another major disadvantage is that the pressures
of the workplace can cause instruction of the
employee to be haphazard or neglected.
On-the-job trainers must be well trained
themselves. They should be good performers on the
job; plus, they should be aware of training
techniques.
 Steps for Effective On-the-job Training
In training an employee on the job, the trainer can use several
steps to ensure that the training is effective. Table
summarizes the steps in the training process.
A. Determining the training objectives and preparing the training area:
1. Decide what the trainee must be taught to do the job efficiently, safely,
economically, and intelligently
2. Provide the right tools, equipment, supplies, and material.
3. Have the workplace properly arranged just as the trainee will be expected to
keep it.
B. Presenting the instruction:
Step 1: Preparation of the trainee for learning the job.
a. Put the trainee at ease.
b. Find out what the trainee already knows about the job.
c. Get the trainee interested in and desirous of learning the job.
 Steps for Effective On-the-job Training
Step 2: Breakdown of work into components and identification
of key points:
a.Determine the segments that make up the total job.
b.Determine the key points, or “tricks of the trade.”
Step 3: Presentation of the operations and knowledge:
a.Tell, show, illustrate, and question to put over the new knowledge and
operations.
b.Instruct slowly, clearly, completely, and patiently, one point at a time.
c.Check, question, and repeat.
d.Make sure the trainee understands.
Step 4: Performance tryout:
a.Test the trainee by having him or her performance the job.
b.Ask questions beginning with why, how, when or where.
c.Observe performance, correct errors, and repeat instructions if necessary.
d.Continue until the trainee is competent in the job.
 Steps for Effective On-the-job Training
Step 5: Follow-up
a.Put the trainee on his or her own.
b.Check frequently to be sure the trainee follows instructions.
c.Taper off extra supervision and close follow-up until the trainee is qualified to
work with normal supervision.
 Steps for Effective On-the-job Training
Step 1: Preparation of the Trainee for Learning the
Job: An employee almost always desires to learn a
new job. Showing an interest in the person, explaining
the importance of the job, and explaining why it must
be done correctly enhance the employee’s desire to
learn. Determining the employee’s previous work
experience in similar jobs enables the trainer to use
that experience in explaining the present job or to
eliminate unnecessary explanations.
 Steps for Effective On-the-job Training
Step 2: Breakdown of Work into Components and
Identification of Key Points: This breakdown consists
of determining the segments that make up the total job.
In each segment, something is accomplished to
advance the work toward completion. Such a
breakdown can be viewed as a detained road map that
guides the employee through the entire work cycle in a
rational, easy-to-understand manner, without injury to
the person or damage to the equipment. A key point is
any directive or information that helps the employee
perform a work component correctly, easily, and safely.
Key points are the “tricks of the trade” and are given to
the employee to help reduce learning time
 Steps for Effective On-the-job Training
Step 3: Presentation of the Operations and
Knowledge: Simply telling employee how to perform
the job is usually not sufficient. An employee must not
only be told but also shown how to do the job. Each
component of the job must be demonstrated. While
each is being demonstrated, the key points for the
component should be explained. Employees should be
encouraged to ask questions about each component.
 Steps for Effective On-the-job Training
Step 4: Performance Tryout: An employee should
perform the job under the guidance of the trainer.
Generally, an employee should be required to explain
what he or she is going to do at each component of the
job. If the explanation is correct, the employee is then
allowed to perform the component. If the explanation is
incorrect, the mistake should be corrected before the
employee is allowed to actually perform the
component. Praise and encouragement are essential in
this phase.
 Steps for Effective On-the-job Training
Step 5: Follow-up: When the trainer is reasonable
sure an employee can do the job without monitoring,
the employee should be encouraged to work at his or
her own pace while developing skills in performing the
job and should be left alone. The trainer should return
periodically to answer any questions and see that all is
going well. Employees should not be turned loose and
forgotten. They will have questions and will make
better progress if the trainer is around to answer
questions and help with problems.
 Off-the-Job Training
Off-the-job training covers a number of techniques-
classroom lectures, films, demonstrations, case
studies, and other simulation exercises, and
programmed instruction. The facilities needed for each
of these techniques vary from a small temporary
classroom to an elaborate development center with
large lecture halls, supplemented by small conference
rooms with sophisticated audiovisual equipment. This
occurs when workers are taken away from their place
of work to be trained. This may take place at training
agency or Local College, although many larger firms
also have their own training centers.
Advantages of on-the-job and on-the-job training

On-the-Job Training Off-the-Job Training

Learn from specialists in that
Cheaper to carry out area of work who can provide
more in-depth study
Training is very relevant and
Can more easily deal with groups
practical dealing with day to day
of workers at the same time
requirements of job

Employees respond better when

Workers not taken away from
taken away from pressures of
jobs so can still be productive
working environment
Employees who are new to a job
Workers may be able to obtain
role become productive as
qualifications or certificates
quickly as possible
 Methods of On-the-Job Training
Coaching, which is carried out by experienced managers,
emphasizes the responsibility of all managers for
developing employees. Under this method of
management development, experienced managers advise
and guide trainees in solving managerial problems. The
idea behind coaching should be to allow the trainees to
Coaching

develop their own approaches to management with the

counsel of a more experienced manager.
The technique of managers coaching, other managers have
the advantages that go with learning by doing, particularly
the opportunities for high interaction and rapid feedback on
performance. Unfortunately, its two strongest disadvantages
are
(i) its tendencies to perpetuate the current managerial styles
and practices in the organization and
(ii) its heavy reliance on the coach’s ability to be a good
teacher.
 Methods of On-the-Job Training
Generally, understudy assignments are used to develop
an individual’s capabilities to fill a specific job. An
Understudy Assignments

individual who will eventually be given a particular job

works for the incumbent. The title of the heir to do the job
is usually assistant manager, administrative assistant, or
assistant to a particular manager.
 
The advantage of understudy assignments is that the heir
realizes the purpose of the training and can learn in a
practical and realistic solution without being directly
responsible for operating results. On the negative side, the
understudy learns the bad as well as the good practices of the
incumbent. In addition, understudy assignments maintained
over a long period can become expensive. If an understudy
assignment system is used, it should generally be
supplemented with one or more of the other management
development methods.
 Methods of On-the-Job Training

Many organizations use development through experience.

With this method, individuals are promoted into
management jobs and allowed to learn on their own
from their daily experiences.
Experience

The primary advantage of this method is that the individual,

in attempting to perform a specific job, may recognize the
need for management development and look for a means of
satisfying it. Disadvantage of this method is that,
employees who are allowed to learn management only
through experience can create serious problems by making
mistakes. Also, it is frustrating to attempt to manage without
the necessary background and knowledge.
 Methods of On-the-Job Training
Job rotation is designed to give an individual broad
experience through exposure to many different areas of the
organizations. Job rotation represents an excellent method
for broadening the manager or potential manager, and for
turning specialists into generalists. In addition to increasing
Job Rotation

the manager’s experience and allowing the manager to absorb

new information, it can reduce boredom and stimulate the
development of new ideas. In job rotation, the trainee goes from
one job to another within the organization, generally remaining
in each from six months to a year.
 
Horizontal job transfers can be instituted (i) on a planned
basis- that is, by means of a development program whereby the
worker spends two or three months in an activity and is then
moved on; or (ii) on a situational basis-that is, by moving the
person to another activity when the first is no longer challenging
to him or her, or to meet the needs of work scheduling. In other
words, people may be put in a continual transfer mode.
 Methods of On-the-Job Training
The advantages of job rotation are many.
•It broadens employees and increases their experience.
•Boredom and monotony, which develop after a person
has acquired the skills necessary to perform a task
effectively, are reduced when transfers are made
Job Rotation

frequently.
•Additionally, since job rotation permits a greater
understanding of other activities within the organization,
people are prepared more rapidly to assume great
responsibility, especially at the upper echelons.
•As one moves up the organization, it becomes
increasingly necessary to understand the intricacies and
interrelationships of activities, and these abilities can be
more quickly acquired by moving about within the
organization.
 Methods of On-the-Job Training

On the other hand, job rotation is not without its

drawbacks.
•Development costs are increased, and productivity is
reduced by moving a worker into a new position just
Job Rotation

when his or her efficiency at the prior job was creating

organizational economies.
•The organization must be equipped to deal with the
day-to-day problems that results when inexperienced
personnel perform new tasks, and when rotated
managers make decisions based on little knowledge
of the activity at hand.
•Finally, job rotation can also demotivate intelligent
and aggressive trainees who seek specific
responsibility in their chosen specialty.
 Methods of On-the-Job Training

Special projects require the trainee to learn

about a particular subject. For example, a
trainee may be told to develop a training program
Special Projects

on safety. This would require learning about the

organization’s present safety policies and
problems and the safety training procedures used
by other companies. The trainee must also learn to
work and relate to other employees. However, it is
critical that the special assignments provide a
developing and learning experience for the trainee
and not just busywork.
Committee Assignments Methods of On-the-Job Training

Assignment to a committee can provide an

opportunity for the employee to share in managerial
decision making, to learn by watching others, and to
investigate specific organizational problems.
Committee assignments, which are similar to special
projects, can be used if the organization has regularly
constituted or ad hoc committees. In this approach, an
individual works the committee on its regularly assigned
duties and responsibilities. Thus, the person develops
skills in working with others and learns through the
activities of the committee.
 Methods of On-the-Job Training
Apprenticeship combines on-the-job and off-
Apprenticeships Training

the-job training. Apprenticeship training

provides beginning workers with
comprehensive training in the practical and
theoretical aspects of work required in a highly
skilled occupation. Apprenticeships required the
cooperation of the employer, schools, government
agencies and unions. The apprentice commits to a
period of training and learning that involves both
formal learning and practical on-the-job
experience. These periods can vary from 2 years
to 4 to 5 years. During this period, the pay is less
than that for the master worker.
 Methods of Off-the-Job Training
One of the most common methods of instruction is
lecturing, or teaching by the spoken word. Of
course, lectures can include other media such as
Lecture Courses

transparencies, slides, or videotapes. Formal lecture

courses offer an opportunity for managers or
potential managers to acquire knowledge and
develop their conceptual and analytical abilities. In
large organizations, these lecture courses may be
offered “in-house” by the organization itself and
supported by outside college course work. Small
organizations will utilize courses offered in development
programs at universities and colleges, and through
consulting organizations. Often, college and university
faculty are willing to provide specific courses to deal with
the unique needs of an organization.
 Methods of Off-the-Job Training

Strengths of the lecture method of instruction include

the following:
•Lecturers can reach many learners at one time.
Lecture Courses

•Lectures can cover material not otherwise available.

•Lecturers can serve as effective models for their
audience. An effective lecturer not only conveys
information but also conveys what does and does not
work in different setting.
•The lecture method lets the instructor control what
will be covered, the sequence in which it will be
covered, and how much time will be devoted to each
topic.
•Lectures pose a minimal threat to the learner.
 Methods of Off-the-Job Training

Weaknesses of the lecture method include the

following:
Lecture Courses

•Lectures often do not allow for feedback from the

audience.
•Listeners are often passive.
•The length of lecture periods often does not match
listeners’ interest spans.
•Lecturing fails to allow for individual differences in
ability or experience.
•Lectures are partially dependent on the public
speaking skills and abilities of the lecturer.
 Methods of Off-the-Job Training
Simulation training (occasionally called vestibule
training) is a method in which trainees learn on the
actual or simulated equipment they will use on the job,
Simulation Exercise

but are actually trained off the job. This is a necessity

when it is too costly or dangerous to train employees on
the job. Putting new assembly-line workers right to work
could slow production, for instance, and when safety is a
concern-as with pilots-simulated training may be the only
practical alternative. Simulated training may take place in
a separate room with the same equipment the trainees will
use on the job. However, it often involves the use of
equipment simulators. In pilot training, for instance, airlines
use flight simulators for safety, learning efficiency, and cost
savings, including savings on maintenance, pilot cost, fuel,
and the cost of not having an aircraft in regular service.
 Methods of Off-the-Job Training
The case study analysis approach to management
development was popularized at the Harvard
Graduate School of Business. Taken from the actual
experiences of organizations, these cases represent
The Case Study

attempts to describe, as accurately as possible, real

problems that managers have faced. Trainees study
the cases to determine problems, analyze causes,
develop alternative solutions, select what they believe to
be the best solution, and implement it. Case study can
provide stimulating discussions among participants, as
well as excellent opportunities for individuals to defend
their analytical and judgmental abilities. It appears to be
a rather effective method for improving decision-making
abilities within the constraints of limited information.
 Methods of Off-the-Job Training
Some major advantages of the case method are as follows:
•Cases emphasize the analysis of a situation that is
typical of the manager’s world.
•The case study method improves the learner’s verbal
The Case Study

and written communications skills.

•Cases expose learners to a wide range of true-to-life
management problems.
•Cases inspire interest in otherwise theoretical and
abstract training material.
Some possible weaknesses of the case study method
include the following:
•Cases often focus on past and static considerations.
•Cases analysis often lacks emotional involvement on the
part of the learner and thus is unrealistic in terms of what
the learner would actually do in the situation.
•Cases analysis can sometimes confuse learners who are
used to definite solutions.
 Methods of Off-the-Job Training

One variation of the case study is the incident method.

Incident Method

The learner is initially given only the general outline of a

situation. The instructor then provides additional
information as the learner requests it. Theoretically, the
incident method makes students probe the situations
and seek additional information, much as they would be
required to do in real life.
 Methods of Off-the-Job Training

The in-basket technique simulates a realistic situation by

In-basket Technique

requiring each participant to answer one manager’s mail

and telephone calls. Important duties are interspersed
with routine matters. For instance, one call may come
from an important customer who is angry, while a letter
from a local club may request a donation. Participants
analyze the situations and suggest alternative actions.
They are evaluated on the basis of the number and
quality of decisions and on the priorities assigned to
each situation.
 Methods of Off-the-Job Training
Decision games generally provide a setting of a
computer and its environment and require a team of
players to make decisions involving company
operations. They also normally require the use of
Business Games

computer facilities. In a business game, several teams

act as companies within a type of industry. This method
forces individuals not only to work with other group
members but also to function in an atmosphere of
competition within the industry. Advantages of business
games are that they simulate reality, decisions are made
in a competitive environment, feedback is provided
concerning decisions, and decisions are made using
less than complete data. The main disadvantage is that
many participants simply attempt to determine the key to
winning. When this occurs, the game is not used to its
fullest potential as a learning device.
 Methods of Off-the-Job Training

In this method, participants are assigned different roles

and required to act out those roles in a realistic situation.
Role-Playing

The idea is for the participants to learn from playing out

the assigned roles. The success of this method depends
on the ability of participants to assume the roles
realistically. Videotaping allows for review and evaluation
of the exercise to improve its effectiveness.
 Methods of Off-the-Job Training

Sensitivity training is a method of changing behavior

through group processes. Often referred to as laboratory
Sensitivity Training

training, it influences the participants through

unstructured group interaction. Members are bought
together in a free and open environment in which
participants discuss themselves and their interactive
processes, loosely facilitated by a professional
behavioral scientist. This professional then created the
opportunity for the participants to express their ideas,
beliefs, and attitudes. He or she does not accept-in fact,
overtly rejects-any leadership role.
 Methods of Off-the-Job Training

The objectives of sensitivity training are to provide

Sensitivity Training

managers with increased awareness of their own

behavior and of how others perceive them, greater
sensitivity to the behavior of others, and increased
understanding of group processes. Specific results
sought include increased ability to empathize with
others, improved listening skills, greater openness,
increased tolerance for individual differences, and
improved conflict resolution skills.
Computer and Internet-Based Training Methods of Off-the-Job Training
Firms today use various forms of distance learning
methods for training. Distance learning methods include
traditional paper-and-pencil correspondence courses, as
well as teletraining, videoconferencing, and Internet-based
classes.

Teletraining: With teletraining, a trainer in a central

location teaches group of employees at remote locations
via television hookups (broadcasting equipments).
Teletraining is training that (a) in which usually live
instruction is conveyed in real time via telecommunications
facilities, (b) that may be accomplished on a point-to-point
basis or on a point-to-multipoint basis, and (c) may
assume many forms, such as a teleseminar, a
teleconference, or an electronic classroom, usually
including both audio and video.
Computer and Internet-Based Training Methods of Off-the-Job Training
Videoconferencing: Firms use videoconferencing to train
employees who are geographically separated from each
other- or from the trainer. Videoconferencing allows people
in one location to communicate live via a combination of
audio and visual equipment with people in another city or
country or with groups in several cities. There are several
things to keep in mind before lecturing in front of the
camera. For example, because the training is remote, it’s
particularly important to prepare a training guide ahead of
time, specifically, a manual the learners can use to follow
the points the trainer is making, and a script for the trainer
to follow. A sampling of other hinds would include: arrive at
least 20 minutes early; test all equipment you will be using;
have all participants introduce themselves; remember that
excessive physical movement will cause video image
distortion with compressed telephone transmission.
Computer and Internet-Based Training Methods of Off-the-Job Training
Training via Internet: Internet-based learning programs
are increasingly popular. Many firms simply let their
employees take online courses offered by online. Others
use their proprietary internal intranets to facilitate
computer-based training. For example, Silicon Graphics
transferred many of its training materials onto its intranet.
“Now employees can access the programs whenever they
want. Distribution costs are zero, and if the company
wants to make a change to the program, it can do so at a
central location.”
Comparisons of Training Methods
Comparisons of Training Methods
Comparisons of Training Methods
Comparisons of Training Methods
Comparisons of Training Methods
Comparisons of Training Methods
Comparisons of Training Methods