Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
Shadia S. Baloch
Senior Lecturer, FEST
Isra University, Hyderabad
 1.Behrouz A. Forouzan, Data Communications
and
Networking, 4th Edition, McGraw Hill, 2007
(TEXT BOOK)

2. William Stalling, Data and Computer

Communications ,7th Edition, Prentice Hall,
2005.

http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0072967757/student_view0/chapter1/index.html
Introduction
Data:
 The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating
and using the data

Communication:
 Sharing information
 Sharing can be local (face to face) or remote (over device)

Tele communication:
 Communication at a distance remote communication (tele means far)
 For example: telephone, telegraphy, television, telemedicine etc

Data Communication:
 Exchange of data between two devices via transmission media (wired / wireless)

Communication device:
 Made up of hardware (physical equipment) and software.
What is Data Communications?
What is Computer Network?
 The term telecommunication means communication at a distance. The word data
refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties
creating and using the data. Data communications are the exchange of data
between two devices via some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.
 A computer network or data network is a telecommunications network which
allows computers to exchange data. In computer networks, networked
computing devices exchange data with each other using a data link. The
connections between nodes are established using either cable media or
wireless media.
 Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data between
two or more computers and a computer network or data network is a
telecommunications network that allows computers to exchange data.
The effectiveness of a data communications system
depends on four fundamental characteristics:
 Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by
the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
 Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
 Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are
useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are
produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of
delivery is called real-time transmission.
 Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the
delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every
3D ms. If some of the packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with 4D-ms delay, an uneven
quality in the video is the result.
Significance of Communication
 Communication is the process of exchanging information.
 Human beings do to convey their feelings, thoughts, ideas etc.
 Main barriers are language and distance.
 Methods of communication:
1. Face to face
2. Signals
3. Written word (letters)
4. Telegraph
5. Telephone
6. Radio
7. Television
8. Internet (computer)
Components of a data communication system
Basic components:
Transmitter
Channel or medium
Receiver
Information → Transmitter → Channel → Receiver → Recovered Information.
 The TRANSMITTER is a collection of electronic components and circuits designed
to convert the electrical signal into a signal suitable for transmission over a given
communication medium.
The COMMUNICATION CHANNEL is the medium by which the electronic signal is
sent from one place to another.
Two types of medium:
1. Wired
2. Wireless
 A RECEIVER is a collection of electronic components and circuits that accepts the
transmitted message from the channel and converts it back into a form understandable
by humans.
 A PROTOCOL is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may
be connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be
understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.
Data Representation
 TEXT – unicode (32 bits to represent character)- ASCII
 NUMBERS
 IMAGES-composed of a matrix of pixel
 AUDIO- recording or broadcasting of sound or music.
 VIDEO- recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie
Modes of communication or Data flow
SIMPLEX: The simplest method of electronic communication is
referred to as simplex. This type of communication is one-way.
Examples are: Radio, TV broadcasting, Beeper (personal receiver)
HALF DUPLEX: The form of two-way communication in which only
one party transmits at a time is known as half duplex.
Examples are: Police, military, radio transmissions, Citizen band,
Family radio, Amateur radio etc.
FULL DUPLEX: Most electronic communication is two-way and is
referred to as duplex. When people can talk and listen simultaneously, it
is called full duplex.
Examples are: telephone, cellular phone etc.
Networks
It is a interconnection of a set of devices capable of communication
A device can be a host or end system such as
Large computer
Desktop
Laptop
Workstation
Cellular phone
Security system
A device can also be connecting device such as
Router: which connects the network to other network
Switch: which connects devices together
Modem (modulation-demodulation) : which changes the form of data and so
on.
The network may be using either wired(cable) or wireless(air).
 TOPOLOGY ARCHITECTURE TYPES
STAR PEER TO PEER LAN
RING CLIENT-SERVER MAN
BUS WAN

TECHNOLOGY
DEVICES INTRANET
EXTRANET
NETWORK INTERNET
NIC
HUB
ROUTER
MODEM PROTOCOL
ACCESS
192.168.1.3 TCP/IP
POINT

SOFTWARE
MEDIUM
PYSHICAL / WIRELESS NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM
TWISTED PAIR, COAXIAL, FIBRE OPTIC CLIENT SOFTWARE
INFRARED, RADIOWAVE, SATELLITE
Advantages of Network
1. Sharing of peripheral devices.
2. Sharing of program/software.
3. Sharing of files.
4. Sharing of data.
5. Sharing of information.
6. Sharing of internet connection.
7. Access to database.
8. Better communication.
 Network Criteria
 The network must be able to meet some important criteria.

 Performance: Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics:

throughput and delay. We often need more throughput and less delay. However,
these two criteria are often contradictory. If we try to send more data to the
network, we may increase throughput but we increase the delay because of
traffic congestion in the network.
 Reliability: In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured
by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and
the network's robustness in a catastrophe.
 Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized
access, protecting data from damage and development, and implementing
policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.
Types of Connections
 Following are the basic types of
connections Point to point
1. Point to point connection.
In telecommunications, a point-to-
point connection refers to a communications
connection between two nodes or endpoints.
2. Broadcast connection.
In telecommunication and information Multipoint
theory, broadcasting refers to a method of
transferring a message to all recipients
simultaneously.
3. Multipoint Connection
Multipoint also called multidrop connection, in
which more than two specific devices share a
Broadcasting
single link.
Topologies

 The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out
physically.: Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a
topology.
 The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of
all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.
 There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring as shown in
figure below.
A fully connected mesh topology (5/8 devices)
Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device.
The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the
two devices it connects
To find the number of physical links, we use n(n - 1).
Advantages:
1. The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry
its own data load
2. A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not
incapacitate the entire system.
3. The dedicated links are guaranteed secured.
4. The point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation
easy.
Disadvantages:
The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling and
the number of I/O ports required, so that it can increase the network
expenses. Also the sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the
available space (in walls, ceilings, or floors) can accommodate.
A star topology connecting 4 / 8 stations
 Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only
to a central controller, usually called a hub.
 The controller acts as an exchange: If one device
wants to send data to another, it sends the data to
the controller, which then relays the data to the
other connected device.
 A star topology is less expensive than a mesh
topology.
 Each device needs only one link and one I/O port to
connect it to any number of others. This factor also
makes it easy to install and reconfigure.
 Other advantages include robustness. If one link fails,
only that link is affected.
 One big disadvantage of a star topology is the
dependency of the whole topology on one single
point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole
system is dead.
A bus topology connecting three stations

 A bus topology, is more like multipoint connection. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all
the devices in a network.
 Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.
 A drop line is a connection running between the device and the main cable.
 A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable
to create a contact with the metallic core.
 This topology is least expensive
 Its easy to install.
 Disadvantages include difficult reconnection and fault isolation. Also It can be difficult to add
new devices.
 In addition, a fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission.
 A ring topology connecting six stations
In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two
devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to
device, until it reaches its destination.
Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal intended for
another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.
A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks
In this type of topology we integrate two or more different
topologies to form a resultant topology.
Hybrid Network is flexible b/c it can be designed according to
the requirements of the organization and by optimizing the
available resources.
Scalable: Its easy to increase the size of network by adding
new components, without disturbing existing architecture.
Disadvantages:
Costly Hub: The hubs used to connect two distinct networks,
are very expensive. These hubs are different from usual hubs
as they need to be intelligent enough to work with different
architectures and should be function even if a part of
network is down.
Complexity of Design: One of the biggest drawback of hybrid
topology is its design. Its not easy to design this type of
architecture and its a tough job for designers. Configuration
and installation process needs to be very efficient.
Costly Infrastructure: As hybrid architectures are usually
larger in scale, they require a lot of cables, cooling systems,
sophisticate network devices, etc.
Architecture

HUB HUB
Network Types
There are several different types of computer networks. Computer networks can
be characterized by their size as well as their purpose.
Some of the different networks based on size are:
 Personal area network, or PAN
 Local area network, or LAN
 Metropolitan area network, or MAN
 Wide area network, or WAN
Some of the different networks based on their main purpose are:
• Storage area network, or SAN
• Enterprise private network, or EPN
• Virtual private network, or VPN
Personal Area Network
A personal area network, or PAN, is a computer network organized
around an individual person within a single building. This could be
inside a small office or residence. A typical PAN would include one or
more computers, telephones, peripheral devices, video game
consoles and other personal entertainment devices.
This type of network provides great flexibility. For example, it allows
you to:
• Send a document to the printer in the office upstairs while you are
sitting on the couch with your laptop.
• Upload the photo from your cell phone to your desktop computer.
• Watch movies from an online streaming service to your TV.
Local Area Network
A local area network, or LAN, consists of a computer network at a
single site, typically an individual office building. A LAN is very
useful for sharing resources, such as data storage and printers.
LANs can be built with relatively inexpensive hardware, such as
hubs, network adapters and Ethernet cables.
The smallest LAN may only use two computers, while larger LANs
can accommodate thousands of computers. A LAN typically relies
mostly on wired connections for increased speed and security, but
wireless connections can also be part of a LAN. High speed and
relatively low cost are the defining characteristics of LANs.
Metropolitan Area Network
A metropolitan area network, or MAN, consists of a computer network across an
entire city, college campus or small region. A MAN is larger than a LAN, which is
typically limited to a single building or site. Depending on the configuration, this type
of network can cover an area from several miles to tens of miles. A MAN is often used
to connect several LANs together to form a bigger network. When this type of network
is specifically designed for a college campus, it is sometimes referred to as a campus
area network, or CAN.

Wide Area Network

A wide area network, or WAN, occupies a very large area, such as an entire country or the
entire world. A WAN can contain multiple smaller networks, such as LANs or MANs.
The Internet is the best-known example of a public WAN.
 BASIS OF COMPARISON LAN MAN WAN

Expands to Local Area Network Metropolitan Area Wide Area Network

Network
Meaning A network that connects a It covers relatively large It spans large locality and
group of computers in a region such as cities, connects countries
small geographical area. towns. together. Example
Internet.
Ownership of Network Private Private or Public Private or Public

Design and maintenance Easy Difficult Difficult

Propagation Delay Short Moderate Long

Speed High Moderate Low

Fault Tolerance More Tolerant Less Tolerant Less Tolerant
Congestion Less More More
Used for College, School, Hospital. Small towns, City. Country/Continent.
Uses for transmission WiFi, Ethernet Cables Modem and Wire/Cable Optic wires, Microwaves,
Satellites
Internet and Intranet
BASIS FOR COMPARISON INTERNET INTRANET
Meaning Connects different network of It is a part of Internet which is
computers together privately owned by a particular
firm

Accessibility Anyone can access the Internet Accessible only by the

organization members, having
login details.

Safety Is not as safe as compared to Safe

Intranet

No of Users Unlimited Limited

Visitors Traffic More Less

Network Type Public Private

Information Provided Unlimited, and can be viewed by Limited, and circulates among
everyone the members of an organization
Networking and internetworking Devices:
 Network devices are components used to connect computers or other electronic devices together so
that they can share files or resources like printers or fax machines. Devices used to setup a Local
Area Network (LAN) are the most common types of network devices used by the public.

 An internetwork is a collection of individual networks, connected by intermediate networking

devices, that functions as a single large network.
Connecting
Devices
 NIC (network interface card)
 Repeater
 Modem Networking Internetwor
 Bridge Devices king Devices

 Hub
 Switch
 Router Repeater Bridge Routers Gateway
 Gateway
Hubs  The receptacles on the front of the
hub are called ports. There are
A hub is used as a central point of connection
among media segments.
usually from 4 to 32 ports on a hub,
depending on the size of the
Cables from network devices plug in to the network.
ports on the hub.
 Some hubs have an additional
interface port that connects to
Types of HUBS : another hub, thus increasing the size
A passive hub is just a connector. It of the network.
connects the wires coming from different
branches. The signal pass through a passive  Hubs operate at the physical layer of
hub without regeneration or amplification. the OSI model.
Connect several networking cables together.
 Hubs propagate signals through the
Active hubs or Multiport repeaters-They
network
regenerate or amplify the signal before they
are retransmitted.  They cannot filter network traffic
 They cannot determine best path
Hub is broadcasting the data sent from PC 2.
Switches
 Switches are a special type of hub that offers an additional layer of
intelligence to basic, physical-layer repeater hubs. A switch must be able to
read the MAC address of each frame it receives. This information allows
switches to repeat incoming data frames only to the computer or computers to
which a frame is addressed. This speeds up the network and reduces
congestion.
 As with hubs, Ethernet implementations of network switches are the most
common. Mainstream Ethernet switches support either 10/100 Mbps Fast
Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet (10/100/1000) standards.

Switches operate at both the physical layer and the data link layer of the OSI Model.
Repeater
 A repeater is a device that operates only at the PHYSICAL layer.
 A repeater can be used to increase the length of the network by
eliminating the effect of attenuation on the signal.
 It connects two segments of the same network , overcoming the
distance limitations of the transmission media.
 A repeater forwards every frame; it has no filtering capability
 A repeater is a generator , not an amplifier.
 Repeaters can connect segments that have the same access method.
(CSMA/CD , Token Passing, Polling , etc.)
Bridge
 Connects two similar types of networks so that they look like one network.
 Operates in both the PHYSICAL and the data link layer.
 As a PHYSICAL layer device , it regenerates the signal it receives.
 As a data link layer device , the bridge can check the PHYSICAL / MAC
addresses (source and destination) contained in the frame.
 A bridge has a table used in filtering decisions.
 It can check the destination address of a frame and decide if the frame should
be forwarded or dropped.
 If the frame is to be forwarded, the decision must specify the port.
 A bridge has a table that maps address to ports.
 Limit or filter traffic keeping local traffic local yet allow connectivity to other
parts (segments).
 Gateways
 Gateways are multi-purpose connection devices. They are able to convert the
format of data in one computing environment to a format that is usable in
another computer environment (for example, AppleTalk and DECnet).
 The term gateway is sometimes used when referring to a router. For the
purpose of this lesson, gateways are devices that link different network types
and protocols. For example, gateways translate different electronic mail
protocols and convey email across the Internet
Gateways can operate at all layers of the OSI model since they:
 Can provide a physical link between networks.
 Create junctions between dissimilar networks.
 Translate different network protocols and/ or applications (for example, electronic mail
between the Internet and a commercial online service with its own mail protocol).
Routers
 Routes packets based on their logical addresses (host-to-host addressing).
 A router normally connects LANs and WANs in the Internet and has a routing table that is used for
making decision about the route.
 The routing tables are normally dynamic and are updated using routing protocols.
 Routers can increase network efficiency by filtering out broadcast traffic between networks, thus
reducing unnecessary traffic between networks.

Routers in an internet
NIC(Network Interface Card)
 Network Interface Card, or NIC is a hardware card installed in a computer so it can
communicate on a network. The network adapter provides one or more ports for the network
cable to connect to, and it transmits and receives data onto the network cable.
 Wireless Lan card

• Every networked computer must also have a network adapter

driver, which controls the network adapter. Each network adapter
driver is configured to run with a certain type of network adapter.

Network Interface Adapter Functions:

• Data encapsulation
• Signal encoding and decoding
• transmission and reception
• Data buffering Serial/parallel conversion Media access control
Modems
 A modem is a device that makes it possible for computers to communicate
over telephone lines. The word modem comes from Modulate and
Demodulate. Because standard telephone lines use analog signals, and
computers digital signals, a sending modem must modulate its digital signals
into analog signals. The computers modem on the receiving end must then
demodulate the analog signals into digital signals.
End Chapter Exercise:
1. Identify the five components of a data communications system.
2. Categorize the four basic topologies in terms of line configuration and cite an advantage of
each type.
3. For 5 devices in a network, what is the number of cable links required for a mesh, ring, bus,
and star topology?
4. Draw a hybrid topology with a star backbone and three ring networks.
5. Draw a hybrid topology with a ring backbone and two bus networks.
6. What is an internet and an intranet?
7. Describe the history of internet.
8. What is an internet today?
9. What are the advantages of a multipoint connection over a point-to-point connection?
10. Compare different parameters for LAN, MAN and WAN.
 Complete the following table
BASIS OF Hub Switches Bridges Gateways
COMPARISON
Definition
Function / Work
Layer
Ports
Device type
Transmission mode
Data transmission
form
Used in (LAN, MAN,
WAN)