Basic concepts of the

Endocrine and
reproductive system

Dr. Festus Mushabati

CBU School of Medicine
Ndola.

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 Lecture outline/ learning objectives
By the end of this lecture, learners should be able to;
 Use recommended/prescribed textbooks for further reading
 Know endocrine glands and hormones they secrete with respective functions
 Understand the functions of the Endocrine system
 Compare Endocrine with Nervous system
 Define a hormone and how it differs from other intercellular communic
 List and understand Chemical classes of hormones including their
synthesis/secretion/clearance
 Know hormone receptors
 Explain the regulation of receptors; up and down – regulation
 Understand and apply regulation of hormone secretion in endocrine
diagnosis/management of disorders; Positive and negative feedback loops
 Understand and apply mechanisms of hormone actions and 2nd Messengers in
endocrinology
 Understand basis of measuring hormone levels – hormonal assays/clinical
applications.

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TEXTBOOKS
Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology,
24th edition.
Constanzo’s BRS Physiology, ? Edition.
Textbook of Medical Physiology, 12 th
edition by Guyton and Hall.
E-learning including youtube videos on
physiology of endocrine system.

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Fig. 1. 1--
Endocrine
glands

17-
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Table. 10.3a

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Table. 10.3b

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Principal functions of the
endocrine system
 Maintenance of the internal environment in the
body (maintaining the optimum biochemical and
physiological environment e.g osmolality, etc).

 Integration,
coordination and regulation of growth
and development.

 Control, maintenance and instigation of sexual

reproduction, including gametogenesis, coitus,
fertilization, fetal growth and development and
nourishment of the newborn.
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Endocrine System Components
Endocrine system
◦ endocrine organs (thyroid, pineal, adrenals, fig 1.1)
◦ hormone producing cells in organs (brain, heart and
small intestine)
Endocrine glands
◦ produce hormones into bldstream
Hormone
◦ chemical messenger secreted into bloodstream,
stimulates response in another tissue or organ (Fig.
1.2b); How?
Target cells
◦ have receptors for a specific hormone

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9
Comparison of Nervous & Endocrine Systems
(major differences)
1. Communication
◦ nervous sys.- uses both electrical and chemical signals
◦ endocrine sys.- hormones.
2. Speed and persistence of response
◦ nervous sys.- reacts quickly (1 - 10 msec), stops
quickly
◦ endocrine sys.- responds slowly…though some
quickly e.g. Epinephrine responds to fear/flight/fight
stimuli very rapidly.
3. Adaptation to long-term stimuli
◦ nervous sys.- response declines (adapts quickly..rapid
adapting)
◦ endocrine sys.- response persists …most hormones
are secreted in small pulsatile bouts over long period.
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10
Comparison of Nervous & Endocrine Systems
(Similarities)
4. Several chemicals function as both hormones and
neurotransmitters
◦ NE and ADH
5. Some hormones secreted by neuroendocrine cells
(neurons)
◦ Oxytocin and Vasopressin
6. Both systems with overlapping effects on same target
cells
◦ NE and glucagon cause glycogenolysis in liver
7. Systems regulate each other
◦ neurons trigger hormone secretion
◦ hormones stimulate or inhibit neurons
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11
Endocrine vs. Exocrine Glands
Exocrine glands
◦ ducts carry secretion to a surface or organ cavity
◦ extracellular effects (food digestion)
◦ Example?
Endocrine glands
◦ no ducts;

◦ intracellular effects, alter target cell metabolism

◦ Example?

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12
Definition of hormones
Chemicals messengers synthesized and
secreted by ductless endocrine glands
directly into the blood vascular system
In minute quantities
Classic endocrine glands:
◦ pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal,
pancreas, ovary, testis, placenta, pineal gland

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Chemical messengers in coordination or intercellular communication
1. Neurotransmitters are released by axon terminals of neurons into the
synaptic junctions and act locally to control nerve cell functions.
2. Endocrine hormones are released by glands or specialized cells into the
circulating blood and influence the function of cells at another location in
the body.
3. Neuroendocrine hormones are secreted by neurons into the circulating
blood and influence the function of cells at another location in the body.
4. Paracrines are secreted by cells into the extracellular fluid and affect
neighboring cells of a different type.
5. Autocrines are secreted by cells into the extracellular fluid and affect the
function of the same cells that produced them by binding to cell surface
receptors.
6. Cytokines are peptides secreted by cells into the extracellular fluid and can
function as autocrines, paracrines, or endocrine hormones.

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Figure 1.2a– A neuron has a long fiber that
delivers its neurotransmitter into a synaptic
cleft.

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Figure 1.2b– Endocrine cells secrete a
hormones into the bloodstream.

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16
Classes and Synthesis of Hormones
There are three general classes of hormones:
1. Proteins and polypeptides, including hormones secreted by the
anterior and posterior pituitary gland, the pancreas (insulin and
glucagon), the parathyroid gland (parathyroid hormone), and
many others.
2. Steroids secreted by the adrenal cortex (cortisol and
aldosterone), the ovaries (estrogen and
progesterone), the testes (testosterone), and the placenta
(estrogen and progesterone).
3. Derivatives of the amino acid tyrosine, secreted by the
thyroid (thyroxine and triiodothyronine) and the adrenal
medullae (epinephrine and norepinephrine).
There are no known polysaccharides or nucleic acid hormones.
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Polypeptides and peptides are synthesized in rER and stored in Secretory Vesicles.
 Most of the hormones in the body are polypeptides and proteins
 Protein and peptide hormones are synthesized on the rough end of the endoplasmic
reticulum of the different endocrine cells, in the same fashion as most other proteins.
◦ They are usually synthesized first as larger proteins that are not biologically active
(preprohormones) and are cleaved to form smaller prohormones in the endoplasmic
reticulum.
◦ These are then transferred to the Golgi apparatus for packaging into secretory
vesicles.
 In this process, enzymes in the vesicles cleave the prohormones to produce smaller,
biologically active hormones and inactive fragments.
 The vesicles are stored within the cytoplasm.
 Secretion of the hormones (as well as the inactive fragments) occurs by exocytosis.
 Stimulus for exocytosis is an increase in cytosolic calcium concentration or stimulatio
of an endocrine cell surface receptor causes increased cyclic cAMP and subsequently
activation of PKA.
 The peptide hormones are water soluble, allowing them to enter the circulatory system
easily, where they are carried to their target tissues.

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Peptide/protein hormones
 Range from 3 amino acids to hundreds of
amino acids in size.
 Often produced as larger molecular
weight precursors that are proteolytically
cleaved to the active form of the hormone.

 Peptide/protein hormones are water

soluble.
 Comprise the largest number of
hormones– perhaps in thousands
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Peptide/protein hormones
 Are encoded by a specific gene which is transcribed into
mRNA and translated into a protein precursor called a
preprohormone
 Preprohormones are often post-translationally modified
in the ER to contain carbohydrates (glycosylation)
 Preprohormones contain signal peptides (hydrophobic
amino acids) which targets them to the golgi where
signal sequence is removed to form prohormone
 Prohormone is processed into active hormone and
packaged into secretory vessicles

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Peptide/protein hormones
 Secretory vesicles move to plasma membrane where
they await a signal. Then they are exocytosed and
secreted into blood stream
 In some cases the prohormone is secreted and converted
in the extracellular fluid into the active hormone: an
example is angiotensin is secreted by liver and
converted into active form by enzymes secreted by
kidney and lung

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Synthesis and secretion of peptide hormones. The stimulus for
hormone secretion often involves changes in intracellular calcium
or changes in cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) in the
cell.

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Peptide/protein hormone synthesis

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Amine hormones
There are two groups of hormones derived from the
amino acid tyrosine
Thyroid hormones and Catecholamines

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Thyroid Hormone
 Thyroid hormones are basically a "double" tyrosine with
the critical incorporation of 3 or 4 iodine atoms.
Thyroid hormone is produced by the thyroid gland and
is lipid soluble
 Thyroid hormones are produced by modification of a
tyrosine residue contained in thyroglobulin, post-
translationally modified to bind iodine, then
proteolytically cleaved and released as T4 and T3. T3 and
T4 then bind to thyroxin binding globulin for transport in
the blood.

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Thyroid hormones

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Catecholamine hormones
 Catecholamines are both neurohormones and
neurotransmitters.
These include epinephrine, and norepinephrine
 Epinephrine and norepinephrine are produced
by the adrenal medulla both are water soluble
 Secreted like peptide hormones

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Synthesis of catecholamines

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Amine Hormones
Two other amino acids are used for
synthesis of hormones:
Tryptophan is the precursor to serotonin
and the pineal hormone melatonin
Glutamic acid is converted to histamine

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Steroid hormones
 All steroid hormones are derived from
cholesterol and differ only in the ring
structure and side chains attached to it.
 All steroid hormones are lipid soluble

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Types of steroid hormones
Glucocorticoids; cortisol is the major
representative in most mammals
Mineralocorticoids; aldosterone being
most prominent
Androgens such as testosterone
Estrogens, including estradiol and
estrone
Progestogens (also known a progestins)
such as progesterone

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Steroid hormone synthesis
All steroid hormones are derived from
cholesterol. A series of enzymatic steps in
the mitochondria and ER of steroidogenic
tissues convert cholesterol into all of the
other steroid hormones and intermediates.
The rate-limiting step in this process is the
transport of free cholesterol from the
cytoplasm into mitochondria. This step is
carried out by the Steroidogenic Acute
Regulatory Protein (StAR)
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Steroid hormone synthesis
•The cholesterol precursor comes from
cholesterol synthesized within the cell from
acetate, from cholesterol ester stores in
intracellular lipid droplets or from uptake of
cholesterol-containing low density
lipoproteins.
•Lipoproteins taken up from plasma are most
important when steroidogenic cells are
chronically stimulated.

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Hormone Secretion, Transport, and Clearance from the Blood
 Onset of Hormone Secretion After a Stimulus, and Duration of Action of Different
Hormones Varies
◦ Fast secretion and onset of action eg norepinephrine and epinephrine
◦ May require months for full action eg thyroxine or growth hormone, may require
months for full effect.
 Thus, each of the different hormones has its own characteristic onset and duration of
action.
 Concentrations of Hormones in the Circulating Blood, and Hormonal Secretion

◦ The concentrations of hormones required are incredibly small. Range from as little
as 1 picogram (which is one millionth of one millionth of a gram) in each milliliter
of blood up to at most a few micrograms (a few millionths of a gram) per milliliter
of blood.
◦ The rates of secretion of the various hormones are extremely small, usually
measured in micrograms or milligrams per day.

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Transport of Hormones in the Blood

Water-soluble hormones (peptides and catecholamines)

 are dissolved in the plasma and transported from their sites of
synthesis to target tissues,
Steroid and thyroid hormones, in contrast,
 circulate in the blood mainly bound to plasma proteins.
 Usually less than 10 per cent of steroid or thyroid hormones
in the plasma exist free in solution.
 Protein-bound hormones cannot easily diffuse across the
capillaries and gain access to their target cells and are
therefore biologically inactive until they dissociate from
plasma proteins.
The relatively large amounts of hormones bound to proteins
serve as reservoirs,
Binding of hormones to plasma proteins greatly slows their
clearance from the plasma.
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“Clearance” of Hormones from the Blood
Two factors can increase or decrease the
concentration of a hormone in the blood.
the rate of hormone secretion into the blood.
the rate of removal of the hormone from the
blood, which is called the metabolic clearance
rate.
Hormones are “cleared” from the plasma in several
ways, and these include:
1. metabolic destruction by the tissues
2. binding with the tissues,
3. excretion by the liver into the bile, and
4. excretion by the kidneys into the urine.

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Feedback Control of Hormone Secretion
Negative Feedback Prevents Overactivity of Hormone Systems.
 After a stimulus causes release of the hormone, conditions or products
resulting from the action of the hormone tend to suppress its further release.
 The controlled variable is often not the secretory rate of the hormone itself
but the degree of activity of the target
 Feedback regulation of hormones can occur at all levels, including gene
transcription and translation steps involved in the synthesis of hormones
and steps involved in processing hormones or releasing stored hormones.
Surges of Hormones Can Occur with Positive Feedback. In a few
instances,
 positive feedback occurs when the biological action of the hormone causes
additional secretion

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 One example of this is the surge of luteinizing
hormone (LH) that occurs as a result of the stimulatory
effect of estrogen on the anterior pituitary before
ovulation. The secreted LH then acts on the ovaries to
stimulate additional secretion of estrogen, which in turn
causes more secretion of LH. Eventually, LH reaches
an appropriate concentration, and typical negative
feedback control of hormone secretion is then exerted.
Cyclical Variations Occur in Hormone Release.
 Superimposed on the negative and positive feedback
control of hormone secretion
Influenced by seasonal changes, various stages of
development and aging, the diurnal (daily) cycle, and
sleep eg the secretion of growth hormone is markedly
increased during the early period of sleep but is
reduced during the later stages of sleep

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 Feedback Control of Hormone
Production

Feedback loops are used

extensively to regulate
secretion of hormones in
the hypothalamic-pituitary
axis. An important example
of a negative feedback loop
is seen in control of thyroid
hormone secretion

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Feedback control
Negative feedback is most common: for
example, LH from pituitary stimulates the testis
to produce testosterone which in turn feeds back
and inhibits LH secretion
Positive feedback is less common: examples
include LH stimulation of estrogen which
stimulates LH surge at ovulation

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Negative feedback effects of cortisol

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Feedback control of insulin by
glucose concentrations

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§ Negative feedback
1. Principle– The body senses a change and
activates mechanisms that negate it;
 (On pituitary hormones) target organ hormone
levels inhibits release of tropic hormones
2. Example– TRH-TSH-thyroid hormones
(see next slide; )

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44
 (▬)

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§ Positive feedback—1
1. Definition– change in a factor triggers a
physiological response that AMPLIFIES
an initial change

2. Example— in the birth of a baby; how?

See next slide

17-
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§ Positive feedback—2
3. Details of birth of a baby
◦ 1. Uterine contractions push the fetus against the
cervix
◦ 2. The stretching of the cervix
(RECEPTOR/SENSOR is the nerve cells here)
triggers nerve impulses to the brain

◦ 3. Brings about oxytocin secretion

◦ 4. The hormone oxytocin causes even
STRONGER powerful contractions of the
uterus (EFFECTOR is muscles in wall of uterus)

17-
16/10/2015 Mushabati's notes 48
 Hormone receptors regulation
Down-regulation: is the decrease in number of
hormone receptors which decreases the sensitivity to
that hormone..occurs in hormone excess by
desensitization or internalization of receptors
following H-R complex forms e.g. Graves disease,
Up-regulation: is the increase in the number of
receptors which causes the cell to be more sensitive
to a particular hormone….normally occurs when
free or active hormone conc. decreases in plasma.

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 Down regulation of receptors can be due to
1.inactivation of some of the receptor molecules
2.inactivation of some of the intracellular protein signaling molecules
3.temporary sequestration of the receptor to the inside of the cell,
away from the site of action of hormones that interact with cell
membrane receptors
4.destruction of the receptors by lysosomes after they are internalized
5.decreased production of the receptors.
 In each case, receptor down-regulation decreases the target tissue’s
responsiveness to the hormone.
 Some hormones cause up-regulation of receptors and intracellular
signaling proteins
 When upregulation occurs, the target tissue becomes progressively
more sensitive to the stimulating effects of the hormone.

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Hormone Actions and 2nd messenger
systems
“Lock and Key” approach: describes the
interaction between the hormone and its
specific receptor.
◦ Receptors for nonsteroid hormones are located
on the cell membrane
◦ Receptors for steroid and thyroid hormones
are found in the cell’s cytoplasm or in its
nucleus

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Mechanisms of Action of Hormones
Hormone Receptors and Their Activation
 The first step of a hormone’s action is to bind to specific receptors at the target cell.
 Hormonal receptors are large proteins,
 When the hormone combines with its receptor, this usually initiates a cascade of
reactions in the cell, with each stage becoming more powerfully activated so that even
small concentrations of the hormone can have a large effect
 The locations for the different types of hormone receptors are generally the following:
1. In or on the surface of the cell membrane. The membrane receptors are specific
mostly for the protein, peptide, and catecholamine hormones.
2. In the cell cytoplasm. The primary receptors for the different steroid hormones are
found mainly in the cytoplasm.
3. In the cell nucleus. The receptors for the thyroid hormones are found in the nucleus.
 The number of receptors in a target cell usually does not remain constant
◦ reduced, inactivated or increased

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Steroid hormones
Lipophilic hormones pass through the
target cell’s plasma membrane and bind to
intracellular receptor proteins.
◦ hormone receptor complex then binds to
specific regions of DNA
 activate genes and regulate target cells

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Steroid Hormone Action

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 Hormone Actions contd…
Nonsteroid Hormones
◦ React with specific receptors outside the cell
◦ This triggers an enzyme reaction with lead to the
formation of a second messenger (cAMP), Ca++,
IP3/DAG, etc.
◦ cAMP can produce specific intracellular functions:
 Activates cell enzymes
 Change in membrane permeability
 Promote protein synthesis
 Change in cell metabolism
 Stimulation of cell secretions
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Hormones That Do Not Enter Cells
Hormones that are too large or too polar
to cross plasma membranes include all of
the peptide and glycoprotein hormones, as
well as catecholamine hormones
epinephrine and norepinephrine.
◦ bind to receptor proteins located on the outer
surface of the plasma membrane
 cyclic AMP second-messenger system
 IP3/CA++ second-messenger system

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Action of Epinephrine on a Liver
Cell 1. Epinephrine is lipophobic
and needs to bind to specific
receptor proteins on cell
surface.
2. Acting through intermediary
G proteins the hormone bound
receptor activates the enzyme
adenenylyl cyclase which
converts ATP to cAMP
3. Cyclic AMP performs as a
2ndary messenger and
activates protein kinase-A an
enzyme that was previously
inactive
4. Protein kinase–A
phosphorylates and activates
the enzyme phosphorylase
which catalyses the hydrolysis
16/10/2015of Mushabati's
glycogen into glucose.
notes 57
IP3/CA++ Second-Messenger System
1. The hormone epinephrine
binds to specific receptor
proteins on the cell surface.
2. Acting through G- proteins,
the hormone-bound receptor
activates the enzyme
phospholipase C, which
converts membrane
phospholipids into inositol
triphosphate (IP3)

3. IP3 diffuses thru the

cytoplasm and binds to
receptors on the endoplasmic
reticulum
4. The binding of IP3 to the
receptor stimulates the
5. Some of the released Ca++ binds to the receptor protein called calmodulin
endoplasmic reticulum to
releaseproteins
6. The Ca++/Calmodulin complex activates other intracellular Ca++ into the
– producing
the horomone effects cytoplasm
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Intracellular Signaling After Hormone Receptor Activation
 A hormone affects its target tissues by first forming a hormone-receptor
complex. This alters the function of the receptor itself
 The activated receptor initiates the hormonal effects.
Examples of different receptors are
1. Ion channel receptors
2. G Protein–Linked Hormone Receptors
3. Enzyme-Linked Hormone Receptors
4. Intracellular Hormone Receptors and Activation of Genes.

Ion Channel–Linked Receptors.

 Virtually all the neurotransmitter substances, such as acetylcholine and
norepinephrine, combine with receptors in the postsynaptic membrane.
 This causes a change in the structure of the receptor, usually opening or
closing a channel for one or more ions.
 The altered movement of these ions through the channels causes the
subsequent effects on the postsynaptic cells.
 But most hormones that open or close ions channels do this indirectly by
coupling with G protein–linked or enzyme-linked receptors.
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G Protein–Linked Hormone Receptors.
 Many hormones activate receptors that indirectly regulate the activity of
target proteins (e.g., enzymes or ion channels) by coupling cell membrane
proteins called heterotrimeric GTP-binding proteins (G proteins)
 They have seven transmembrane segments that loop in and out of the cell
membrane.
 Some parts of the receptor that protrude into the cell cytoplasm
(especially the cytoplasmic tail of the receptor) are coupled to G proteins
that include three (i.e., trimeric) parts—the a, b, and g subunits.
 When the ligand (hormone) binds to the extracellular part of the receptor,
a conformational change occurs in the receptor that activates the G
proteins and induces intracellular signals that either
 (1) open or close cell membrane ion channels or
 (2) change the activity of an enzyme in the cytoplasm of the cell. The
trimeric G proteins are named for their ability to bind guanosine
nucleotides. In their inactive state, the a, b, and g subunits of G proteins
form a complex that binds guanosine diphosphate (GDP) on the a
subunit.
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 When the receptor is activated, it undergoes a conformational
change that causes the GDP-bound trimeric G protein to associate
with the cytoplasmic part of the receptor and to exchange GDP for
guanosine triphosphate (GTP).
 Displacement of GDP by GTP causes the a subunit to dissociate
from the trimeric complex and to associate with other intracellular
signaling proteins which inturn, alter the activity of ion channels or
intracellular enzymes such as adenylyl cyclase or phospholipase C,
which alters cell function.
 The signaling event is rapidly terminated when the hormone is
removed and the a subunit inactivates itself by converting its bound
GTP to GDP; then the a subunit once again combines with the b and
g subunits to form an inactive, membrane-bound trimeric G protein.
 Some hormones are coupled to inhibitory G proteins (denoted Gi
proteins), whereas others are coupled to stimulatory G proteins
(denoted Gs proteins).
 Thus, depending on the coupling of a hormone receptor to an
inhibitory or stimulatory G protein, a hormone can either increase or
decrease the activity of intracellular enzymes..

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Mechanism of activation of a G protein–coupled receptor. When the
hormone activates the receptor, the inactive a, b, and g G protein
complex associates with the receptor and is activated, with an exchange
of guanosine triphosphate (GTP) for guanosine diphosphate (GDP). This
causes the a subunit (to which the GTP is bound) to dissociate from the b
and g subunits of the G protein and to interact with
membrane-bound target proteins (enzymes) that initiate intracellular
signals. 16/10/2015 Mushabati's notes 62
Enzyme-Linked Hormone Receptors.
 Some receptors, when activated, function directly as enzymes or are
closely associated with enzymes that they activate.
 These enzyme-linked receptors are proteins that pass through the
membrane only once, in contrast to the seven-transmembrane G
protein–coupled receptors.
 Enzyme-linked receptors have their hormone-binding site on the
outside of the cell membrane and their catalytic or enzyme-binding
site on the inside.
 When the hormone binds to the extracellular part of the receptor, an
enzyme immediately inside the cell membrane is activated (or
occasionally inactivated).
 Although many enzyme-linked receptors have intrinsic enzyme
activity, others rely on enzymes that are closely associated with the
receptor to produce changes in cell function.

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Intracellular Hormone Receptors and Activation of Genes.
 Steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, retinoid hormones, and
vitamin D, bind with protein receptors inside the cell rather
than in the cell membrane.
 Because these hormones are lipid soluble, they readily cross
the cell membrane and interact with receptors in the cytoplasm
or nucleus.
 The activated hormonereceptor complex then binds with a
specific regulatory (promoter) sequence of the DNA called the
hormone response element, and in this manner either activates
or represses transcription of specific genes and formation of
messenger RNA (mRNA).
 Minutes, hours, or even days after the hormone has entered
the cell, newly formed proteins appear in the cell and become
the controllers of new or altered cellular functions.

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Mechanisms of interaction of lipophilic hormones, such as
steroids, with intracellular receptors in target cells. After the
hormone binds to the receptor in the cytoplasm or in the nucleus,
the hormone-receptor complex binds to the hormone response
element (promoter) on the DNA. This either activates or inhibits
gene transcription, formation of messenger RNA (mRNA), and
protein synthesis. 16/10/2015 Mushabati's notes 65
Second Messenger Mechanisms for Mediating Intracellular Hormonal Functions
 The only direct effect that the hormone has on the cell is to activate a single type
of membrane receptor.
 The second messenger does the rest.
 Second messengers include
◦ cAMP
◦ calcium ions and associated calmodulin and
◦ products of membrane phospholipid breakdown.
◦ etc
Adenylyl Cyclase–cAMP Second Messenger System
 Binding of the hormones with the receptor allows coupling of the receptor to a G
protein.
 If the G protein stimulates the adenylyl cyclase–cAMP system, it is called a Gs
protein, denoting a stimulatory G protein.
 Stimulation of adenylyl cyclase, a membrane- bound enzyme, by the Gs protein
then catalyzes. the conversion of a small amount of cytoplasmic adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) into cAMP inside the cell.

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 This then activates cAMP-dependent protein kinase, which
phosphorylates specific proteins in the cell, triggering biochemical
reactions that ultimately lead to the cell’s response to the hormone.
 Once cAMP is formed inside the cell, it usually activates a cascade
of enzymes. That is, first one enzyme is activated, which activates a
second enzyme, which activates a third, and so forth.
 Onlya few molecules of activated adenylyl cyclase immediately
inside the cell membrane can cause many more molecules of the
next enzyme to be activated, which can cause still more molecules
of the third enzyme to be activated, and so forth.
 In this way, even the slightest amount of hormone acting on the cell
surface can initiate a powerful cascading activating force for the
entire cell.
 If binding of the hormone to its receptors is coupled to an inhibitory
G protein (denoted Gi protein), adenylyl cyclase will be inhibited,
reducing the formation of cAMP and ultimately leading to an
inhibitory action in the cell.

16/10/2015 Mushabati's notes 67

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) mechanism by which
many hormones exert their control of cell function. ADP, adenosine
diphosphate; ATP, adenosine triphosphate
16/10/2015 Mushabati's notes 68
Intracellular Hormone Receptors and Activation of Genes.
 Steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, retinoid hormones, and
vitamin D, bind with protein receptors inside the cell rather
than in the cell membrane.
 Because these hormones are lipid soluble, they readily cross
the cell membrane and interact with receptors in the cytoplasm
or nucleus.
 The activated hormonereceptor complex then binds with a
specific regulatory (promoter) sequence of the DNA called the
hormone response element, and in this manner either activates
or represses transcription of specific genes and formation of
messenger RNA (mRNA).
 Minutes, hours, or even days after the hormone has entered
the cell, newly formed proteins appear in the cell and become
the controllers of new or altered cellular functions.

16/10/2015 Mushabati's notes 69

Mechanisms of interaction of lipophilic hormones, such as
steroids, with intracellular receptors in target cells. After the
hormone binds to the receptor in the cytoplasm or in the nucleus,
the hormone-receptor complex binds to the hormone response
element (promoter) on the DNA. This either activates or inhibits
gene transcription, formation of messenger RNA (mRNA), and
protein synthesis. 16/10/2015 Mushabati's notes 70
 This then activates cAMP-dependent protein kinase, which
phosphorylates specific proteins in the cell, triggering biochemical
reactions that ultimately lead to the cell’s response to the hormone.
 Once cAMP is formed inside the cell, it usually activates a cascade
of enzymes. That is, first one enzyme is activated, which activates a
second enzyme, which activates a third, and so forth.
 Onlya few molecules of activated adenylyl cyclase immediately
inside the cell membrane can cause many more molecules of the
next enzyme to be activated, which can cause still more molecules
of the third enzyme to be activated, and so forth.
 In this way, even the slightest amount of hormone acting on the cell
surface can initiate a powerful cascading activating force for the
entire cell.
 If binding of the hormone to its receptors is coupled to an inhibitory
G protein (denoted Gi protein), adenylyl cyclase will be inhibited,
reducing the formation of cAMP and ultimately leading to an
inhibitory action in the cell.

16/10/2015 Mushabati's notes 71

The Cell Membrane Phospholipid Second Messenger System
 Some hormones activate transmembrane receptors that activate the enzyme
phospholipase C attached to the inside projections of the receptors.
 This enzyme catalyzes the breakdown of some phospholipids in the cell membrane,
especially phosphatidylinositolbiphosphate (PIP2), into two different second
messenger products:
◦ inositol triphosphate (IP3) and
◦ diacylglycerol (DAG).
 The IP3 mobilizes calcium ions from mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum, and
the calcium ions then have their own second messenger effects, such as smooth muscle
contraction and changes in cell secretion.
 DAG, the other lipid second messenger, activates the enzyme protein kinase C (PKC),
which then phosphorylates a large number of proteins, leading to the cell’s response.
 In addition to these effects, the lipid portion of DAG is arachidonic acid,which is the
precursor for the prostaglandins and other local hormones that cause multiple effects in
tissues throughout the body.

16/10/2015 Mushabati's notes 72

The cell membrane phospholipid second messenger system by which
some hormones exert their control of cell function. DAG,
diacylglycerol; IP3, inositol triphosphate; PIP2,
phosphatidylinositol biphosphate. 16/10/2015 Mushabati's notes 73
Calcium-Calmodulin Second Messenger System
 Another second messenger system operates in response to the entry of
calcium into the cells
 Calcium entry may be initiated by
◦ changes in membrane potential that open calcium channels or
◦ a hormone interacting with membrane receptors that open calcium
channels.
 On entering a cell, calcium ions bind with the protein calmodulin
 This protein has four calcium binding sites
◦ when three or four of these sites have bound with calcium, the calmodulin
changes its shape and initiates multiple effects inside the cell, including
activation or inhibition of protein kinases.
 Activation of calmodulin-dependent protein kinases causes, via
phosphorylation, activation or inhibition of proteins involved in the cell’s
response to the hormone

16/10/2015 Mushabati's notes 74

Hormones That Act Mainly on the Genetic Machinery of the Cell
Steroid Hormones Increase Protein Synthesis
 The sequence of events in steroid function is essentially the following:

◦ The steroid hormone diffuses across the cell membrane and enters the
cytoplasm of the cell, where it binds with a specific receptor protein.
◦ The combined receptor protein–hormone then diffuses into or is
transported into the nucleus.
◦ The combination binds at specific points on the DNA strands in the
chromosomes, which activates the transcription process of specific
genes to form mRNA.
◦ The mRNA diffuses into the cytoplasm, where it promotes the
translation process at the ribosomes to form new proteins.

16/10/2015 Mushabati's notes 75

Thyroid Hormones Increase Gene Transcription in the Cell Nucleus
 The thyroid hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine cause increased
transcription by specific genes in the nucleus.
 These hormones first bind directly with receptor proteins in the
nucleus itself;
 These receptors are probably protein molecules located within the
chromosomal complex, and they likely control the function of the
genetic promoters or Operators.
 Two important features of thyroid hormone function in the nucleus
are the following:
◦ They activate the genetic mechanisms for the formation of many
types of intracellular proteins
 Many of these are enzymes that promote enhanced intracellular
metabolic activity in virtually all cells of the body.
◦ Once bound to the intranuclear receptors, the thyroid hormones can
continue to express their control functions for days or even weeks.
16/10/2015 Mushabati's notes 76
Measurement of Hormone Concentrations in the Blood
Radioimmunoassay
 The method of performing radioimmunoassay is as follows.
 First, an antibody that is highly specific for the hormone to be
measured is produced.
 Second, a small quantity of this antibody is

◦ (1) mixed with a quantity of fluid from the animal containing the
hormone to be measured and
◦ (2) mixed simultaneously with an appropriate amount of purified
standard hormone that has been tagged with a radioactive isotope.
 However, one specific condition must be met:
 There must be too little antibody to bind completely both the
radioactively tagged hormone and the hormone in the fluid to be
assayed.
 Therefore, the natural hormone in the assay fluid and the radioactive
standard hormone compete for the binding sites of the antibody.
16/10/2015 Mushabati's notes 77
 In the process of competing, the quantity of each of the two hormones, the
natural and the radioactive, that binds is proportional to its concentration in
the assay fluid.
 Third, after binding has reached equilibrium, the antibody-hormone
complex is separated from the remainder of the solution, and the quantity
of radioactive hormone bound in this complex is measured by radioactive
counting techniques.
 If a large amount of radioactive hormone has bound with the antibody, it is
clear that there was only a small amount of natural hormone to compete
with the radioactive hormone, and therefore the concentration of the
natural hormone in the assayed fluid was small.
 Conversely, ifonly a small amount of radioactive hormone has bound, it is
clear that there was a large amount of natural hormone to compete for the
binding sites.
 Fourth, to make the assay highly quantitative, the radioimmunoassay
procedure is also performed for “standard” solutions of untagged hormone
at several concentration levels.
 Then a “standard curve” is plotted.
 By comparing the radioactive counts recorded from the “unknown” assay
procedures with the standard curve, one can determine within an error of
the concentration of the hormone in the “unknown” assayed fluid.

16/10/2015 Mushabati's notes 78

“Standard curve” for radioimmunoassay of aldosterone.

16/10/2015 Mushabati's notes 79

Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)
 Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) can be used to measure
almost any protein, including hormones.
 This method is often performed on plastic plates that each have 96 small
wells.
 Each well is coated with an antibody (AB1) that is specific for the
hormone being assayed.
 Samples or standards are added to each of the wells, followed by a
second antibody (AB2) that is also specific for the hormone but binds to
a different site of the hormone
 A third antibody (AB3) is added that recognizes AB2 and is coupled to
an enzyme that converts a suitable substrate to a product that can be
easily detected by colorimetric or fluorescent optical methods.

16/10/2015 Mushabati's notes 80

In contrast to competitive radioimmunoassay methods,
ELISA methods use excess antibodies so that all
hormone molecules are captured in antibody-hormone
complexes.
Therefore, the amount of hormone present in the
sample or in the standard is proportional to the amount
of product formed.
The ELISA method has become widely used in clinical
laboratories because
(1) it does not employ radioactive isotopes,
(2) much of the assay can be automated using 96-well
plates, and
(3) cost-effective and accurate method for assessing
hormone levels.

16/10/2015 Mushabati's notes 81

Basic principles of the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for measuring the
concentration of a hormone (H). AB1 and AB2 are antibodies that recognize the hormone
at different binding sites, and AB3 is an antibody that recognizes AB2. E is an enzyme
linked to AB3 that catalyzes the formation of a colored fluorescent product (P) from a
substrate (S). The amount of the product is measured using optical methods and is
proportional to
the amount of hormone in the well if there are excess antibodies in the well.

16/10/2015 Mushabati's notes 82