GONDAR UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Architectural science II (Water and Sewage

Lecture Note)
Chapter-1

By Ashenafi Zinabie January 2021

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

1. Objectives of protected water supply
The objectives of protected water supply scheme are
To supply safe and wholesome water to consumers
To supply water in sufficient quantities
To supply water at convenient points and timings
To supply water at reasonable cost to the users
To encourage personal and house hold cleanliness of users
1.1 Purpose of water supply system
Provide potable water supply to fixtures from water sources

For sanitation (toilets, shower/bath and laundry)

Cooking (kitchen)

Gardening and

Fire protection
Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.
1.2 Components of a protected water supply scheme
Source of water
Intakes
Treatment
Distribution

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

 Introduction
1.4 Pure & Wholesome Water
Pure water: It is that water which contains only two parts of
Hydrogen & one part of Oxygen
Wholesome water: Water which is fit to use for drinking, cooking,
washing without any potential danger to human health
It will neither contain any chemicals or impurities in excess of which
they may harm a human body nor any harmful bacteria. ( Chemically
impure)
water which is safe due to absence of harmful bacteria may or may not
be wholesome, but wholesome water will always be safe.

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

 1.5 Palatable & Potable Water
The water which is tasteful for drinking & aesthetically pure, is known as
Palatable water.

The water which is suitable for public water supply is known as potable
water. It has characteristics of both, Wholesome & palatable
water.

In literal terms, potable water is safe to drink where as palatable water is

water at a desirable temperature, that is free from objectionable tastes, odors,
colors, and turbidity.
So, water that is safe to drink but smells like rotten eggs is potable. Water
that is safe to drink and smells like nothing (water is odorless) is palatable.

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

 1.6 water supply system

Building water supply system is a system in plumbing which provides

and distributes water to the different parts of the building or structure.
 it includes the water distributing pipes, control devices, equipment,
and other appurtenances.
Cold water system provides water for the following purposes;
Drinking purpose.
Cooking purpose.
Sanitary purpose.
Washing purpose.
Gardening

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

 1.8 Purpose of Water Supply Piping System

All water supply systems use a combination of pipes (of

different dimensions and materials):-
valves and outlets to deliver water to building users.
Some water supply systems also use storage tanks and
pumps.
Designing a water supply system involves getting all of
these elements right so that clean water is delivered to the
user at the appropriate rate and temperature

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

 1.9 Introduction to Sources of water
Nature of water source determines the components of the water
supply system
Factors to be considered to select source:
a) Purity of the raw water: This is with respect to the possibility of
treatment (cost)
b) Volume of water available to be enough to satisfy minimum
requirement. Normally inflow should be greater than outflow.
C) Permanency of the sources: Available in large quantity with a
continuous recharge.
d) Elevation of the water level with respect to the area to be supplied:
Cost of lifting the water to a higher elevation will be higher than
that from a lower elevation and may requires the use of pumps.
f) Availability of finance: to carry out the design, construction,
running and maintenance. This is related to the kind of structures.
Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.
 Types of water supply sources

Surface water Groundwater

sources sources

Spring
Rainwater
water

Lakes and
wells
reservoirs

Infiltration
River water
gallery…

Sea water
Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.
 Types of water supply sources
Surface water
This is exposed to contamination and so it must be treatment before use
It may contain both organic and inorganic impurities, gases and micro
organisms. It is generally used for drinking purposes when the ground
water supply is inadequate in quantity.

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

 Rain water
Is the precipitation that is collected before reaching natural water
course
Can be roof or ground surface
Roof/ground water collection can be integrated with tanks

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

Rain water…

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

Rain water……

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

River water: Water is drawn from a body of running water on the
surface of the earth, from higher to lower ground.
Development of rivers requires:
submerged intake structure
small diversion dams (i.e. for small streams)
Consider low flow condition
They are susceptible to contamination.
The chemical nature is partially dependent on bedrock.
Physical and bacteriological qualities are highly variable
Lakes and ponds: These are areas of water surrounded by lend.
Deep lakes and ponds having sufficiently large surface areas can be
used for municipal water supply.
Here the water may be of better quality than the river water and can
be used for domestic purposes without much treatment.
During floods and heavy rain, lakes and ponds fill up and discharge
to the rivers and streams increases.

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

 Groundwater sources
Ground water is the water present beneath Earth's surface in soil pore
spaces and in the fractures of rock formations.

Advantages :
 It is likely to be free of pathogenic bacteria Disadvantages
 free from turbidity and colour  often have high in
 It can be used without further treatment
mineral content;
 It can be found in the close vicinity
 It usually requires
 It is economical to obtain and distribute
pumping.
 The water-bearing stratum provides a
Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.
natural storage at the point of intake.
Water quality considerations
Physical quality parameters
Temperature- around 10˚c desirable, above 25˚c objectionable.
Color- pure water colorless, color mainly due to suspended matter (apparent
color), due to dissolved solids (true color)
Taste and odor- pure water odor and taste less.
Taste and odor due to dissolved gases.
Odor measured by threshold odor number (TON).
Conductivity- gives idea about dissolved solids in water
More solids more conductivity
Measured by conductivity meter.
Avg. value of conductivity of potable water less than 2 mho/cm.
Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.
 Water quality considerations
Chemical quality parameters
Total solids- suspended as well as dissolved solids. Permissible limit 500 ppm and 1000
ppm in case of industrial uses.
Chlorides- mainly present in form of Na chloride.
Due to leaching of marine sedimentary deposits, pollution from sea water, industrial
and domestic water. 250 mg/L permissible limit.
High quantity of chloride indicate pollution of water due to sewerage and industrial
waste.
Hardness- caused by bicarbonates, carbonates, sulphates, chlorides, and nitrates of
calcium and magnesium.
pH- reciprocal of hydrogen ion concentration.
Indicator of acidity and alkalinity of water. Acidic water 0-7, alkaline water 7-14,
Neutral water 7.
Measured in pH meter.
Permissible limit 6.5 to Lecture
7.5. Note By Ashenafi Z.
 Goal of Water Treatment Technologies
To remove
1) Turbidity
2) Chemicals
3) Pathogenic Contaminants from water sources in the most affordable
and expedient manner possible.
Impurities in Water
1) Dissolved Impurities :- carbonates and bicarbonates, chlorides,
magnesium, iron, dissolved gases
2) Suspended Impurities :-
Organic :- oil globules, vegetable and animal matter
Inorganic :- clay and sand.
3) Colloidal Impurities :- finely divided silica and clay, organic waste
products, amino acids.
4) Micro organisms :- fungi and bacteria

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

 Methods for removal of impurities
1) Screening : Screening is a process of removing floating materials
like wood pieces and leaves from water.
 Raw material is allow to pass through a screen having a large number
of holes which removes the small and large floating matter.
2) Sedimentation :Sedimentation is the process of removing suspended
impurities by allowing the water to stand undisturbed for 2-6 hours in
big tanks.
 Due to force of gravity, most of the suspended particles settled down
at the bottom and they are removed.
3) Coagulation :Finely-divided silica, clay etc. do not settle down easily
and hence can not be removed by sedimentation.
 Most of these are in colloidal form and are negatively charged and
hence do not coalesce because of mutual repulsion .
 Such impurities are removed by coagulation method When
Al2(SO4)3 is added in water, it hydrolyzes to form a gelatinous
precipitate of Al(OH)3. It entraps impurities and settle down at the
bottom. Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.
 Methods for removal of impurities
4) Filtration : For removing bacteria, color, taste, odor, fine suspended

particles, etc and to produce clear water, filtration is used.

 In this process, water is passed through beds of fine sand, coarse
sand and other granular material.
 The porous material used is the filtration medium and the equipment
used for filtration is known as filter. e.g. slow sand filter
5) Sterilization :
1) By Chlorine or Bleaching Powder :- When bleaching powder is
added in the water, HOCl is produced and it kills the bacteria.
2) By Ultraviolet Radiation :- UV Radiation can kill the bacteria. It is
useful for sterilizing swimming pool water.
Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.
 Water Demand
Water Demand – Is a schedule of the total quantity of water required for
a specific purpose such as municipal use, power, irrigation, storage etc.
Water Consumption – Is the amount of water consumed in a specified
area.
Consumption in areas with comparable condition is often used as a
guide for making estimation for new district.
Water supply systems are designed to meet community used for a
reasonable number of years in future.
Rate of consumption is normally expressed as mean annual use in
gallon per capita daily.
There are variations in hourly, daily and seasonal demand.
Demand may be high in the early hours, mid day and early evenings.
Demand may also be high at weekends than week days. At weekends
more people are around to use water for domestic purposes.
 Demand may also be high at dry seasons because of dehydration.

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

Population: Related to volume in consumption
Factors Affecting Water Consumption

Availability of water: Influences usage

Quality of the water: Clean water high demand and vice-versa
Presence of water demanding Industries: There should be high demand in
Towns.
Availability of funds: For water treatment plant, in relation to design period which can
be increased from 25 to 50 years.
Climate: high consumption in dry season than wet season because of
dehydration.
Cost of delivery: If of cost production of potable water is high higher tariff 
reduction in the rate of consumption.
Standard of living of the consumers: Rich high consumption and vice –
versa.
Management and efficiency of water works: good management better service
(delivers) high consumption.
Pressure of the water: Low pressures leads to frustration look for alternative
sources (wells) Low consumption.
Metering of water instead of flat rate: This increases the tariff and is controls
consumption.
Characteristics of the population: culture
Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z. and age distribution.
 Quantity of water (Water requirement for various
types of buildings)
Evaluation of the amount of water available and amount of water
demanded by the public are primary tasks in designing any water
supply system.
Demand of water is the amount of water required to meet all the
needs of the people, which the system serves. It is expressed as per
capita per day (l/c/d).
In planning the water supply system it is necessary to find out not
only the total yearly water requirement but also to access the
required average rates of flow and the variations in these rates.
Water demand depends on:
Type of building & its function
Number of occupants, permanent or transitional
Requirement for fire protection systems
Landscape & water features

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

 Water requirement for various types of buildings)
Water requirement for various types of buildings can be divided into four broad
types as given below:-
a. Domestic or Residential use 40 – 60% of the total water demand.
b. Industrial use 25- 30% a)domestic, industrial process
c. Office buildings
d. Buildings with floating population
Man does not require more than 8 liters of water in liquid form for body needs.
Rest of the requirement of water is for Basing ,washing, cleaning, scavenging,
horticulture etc.
 Statistically speaking higher income groups have more consumption of water
than low income groups.

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

Water requirement for various types of buildings
Consumption of water is dependent on very many factors such as
customs of users, community , environment etc.
Water supply systems are designed as per standard laid down for
various types of buildings.
In working out the requirement water the number of persons
should be the average number of persons expected to be handled
daily and also station staff and vendors.
The seasonal peak requirement should be considered.
In case of water supply premises requirements for fire fighting
should be provided.
The sanitary and water supply installations have to be designed
for peak hydraulic load in buildings.

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

Water requirement for various types of buildings
Water demand depends on:
Type of building & its function
Number of occupants, permanent or transitional
Requirement for fire protection systems
Landscape & water features
Typical appliances using the cold water
WC cistern, wash basin, bath, shower, sink
Washing machine
Urinal flushing cistern

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

 Design of building water supply system
Steps;
Obtain architectural drawings (elevation, section and floor plans)
Decide on the type of system and location of storage

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

BUILDING WATER SUPPLY
Purpose

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

 BUILDING WATER SUPPLY
Types of System
Direct connection from the main
Pumped system
System Selection
Demand (pressure and flow)
Type of building occupancy
Aesthetics
Economy
Use
Maintainability
Flexibility to failure

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

 BUILDING WATER SUPPLY
Storage Cisterns
Storage tank /cistern Capacity
Likelihood and frequency of supply breakdown
Type and use of buildings
Number of occupants
Recommended min. storage in l/h/d is given in EBCS 9 (Table 3.3)
Offices = 25
Hotels (per bed) = 100-150
Restaurant (per seat) = 60

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

Design of building water supply system

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.
Pipe sizing

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

Pipe sizing

Riser diagrams are isometric drawings

which show all piping fittings and
equipment that constitute the plumbing
system.
Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.
 Riser diagrams are isometric drawings
which show all piping fittings and
equipment that constitute the plumbing
system.

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

Pipe sizing

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

Pipe sizing

Conversion chart - loading unit to flow rate

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.
 Building Water Supply
Determine the flow rate by fixture loading units
Loading units - a factor or number given to an appliance relating
flow rate to the duration and frequency of use (probable
simultaneous usage).

For fixtures where

simultaneous
flow is unlikely
Q= Probable design flow

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

BUILDING WATER SUPPLY

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

Pipe sizing

Select velocity; Maximum water velocities in pipe work are given in

table 3.8 (EBCS 9) for different water temperature

Assume a pipe diameter based on selected velocity

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

 Pipe sizing
Head loss estimation
The total head loss in a piping system is the head loss through pipes and fittings.
The head loss through fittings is also determined from equivalent length of
straight pipe

Effective length = Measure pipe length + equivalent pipe length for fittings and
draw-offs
Table B1, EBCS
9

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

Pipe sizing

Examples of equivalent pipe length

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

Pipe sizing

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

 Example
Suppose you have a water supply
system in a G+1 building as shown in
the riser diagram as Architectural
Engineer.

Determine velocities in pipes 1-2 & 2-3

and residual pressure at points 2 & 3
if diameter of pipe from reservoir to
first floor (pt. 2) =25mm and 2-3
=20mm.

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.
a. Q1-2 = 0.25√(Z1+Z2+….Zn)

= 0.25*√((4*0.5)+(4*0.5)+(4*1)) = 0.707l/s = 0.000707m3/s

A1-2 = π *(0.025)2/4

= 0.00490m2
V1-2 = Q1-2/A1-2

= 0.000707/0.00490 = 1.44m/s

Q2-3= 0.25√(Z1+Z2+….Zn)

= 0.25*√((2*0.5)+(2*0.5)+(2*1)) = 0.5l/s = 0.0005m3/s

A1-2 = π *(0.020)2/4

= 0.000314m2
V1-2 = Q1-2/A1-2

= 0.0005/0.000314 = 1.59m/s
Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.
Residual pressure at pt 2 = Havailable- HL up to pt. 2

HL up to pt. 2 is HL due to;

L1-2 effective= 10m ф25mm pipe +equivalent length of 1 elbow +

equivalent length of 1 valve
= 10+1+10 = 21m
D1-2 = 25cm

HL = 10.7*(0.000707/150)1.85*21/(0.0254.866)

= 2.0m Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.
Water requirement for various types of buildings
Maximum hourly demand of maximum day i.e. Peak demand in certain area
of a city will affect design of the distribution system while minimum rate of
consumption is of less important than maximum flow but is required in
connection with design of pump plants, usually it will vary from (25-50)
percent of the daily demand.
Average daily demand = Average water consumption (L/Cap.day) x NO. of
population
Maximum daily demand = Pf x average daily demand=1.8 x average daily
demand
Maximum weekly demand = Pf x average daily demand=1.48 x average daily
demand
Maximum monthly demand = Pf x average daily demand=1.28 x average
daily demand
Maximum hourly demand = Pf x maximum daily demand =1.5 x maximum
daily demand=1.5 x 1.8 x average daily demand=2.7 x average daily demand
Minimum hourly demand = Pf x maximum daily demand = 0.5 x maximum
daily demand=0.5 x 1.8 x average daily demand=0.9 x average daily demand

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

 Fire Water Demand
Generally, the amount of water supply for fire fighting is low but the
annual average consumption is high.
It depend on: population number, construction type (single floor,
building, towers), floor area, connection to other construction and
occupancy of a building.
-Demand based on number of population

A: Total floors Area excluding the basement in m2

C: construction type Coefficient ( for wood C= 1.5, C= 1 for ordinary reinforced
construction, C= 0.6 for fire resistant construction)
Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.
 Water requirement for various types of buildings
Fire demand
Firefighting systems: a) with water, b) without water
a) Firefighting systems using water
1-Hydrants: an outdoor system
2-Hose reel: an indoor system
3- Sprinkler: an indoor system
b) Firefighting systems without water
Fire extinguishers are used with engineering criteria for location and number of
cylinders. It should not be used for: 1) electrical risk, 2) flammable liquids.
Fire demand formulas:- The rate of fire demand is sometimes treated as a function of
population and is worked out from following empirical formulas:

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

Design of water supply network inside the building
Definition
Carries water from the water source, street main or to the building and
to various points in the building at which water is used.
Water Supply Systems
• Hot water system
• Cold water system
Cold water system :
• Cold water system provide water for the following purposes.
Drinking purpose
Cooking purpose
Sanitary purpose
Washing purpose
Gardening

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

Example-1
1. A residential area of a city has a population density of
15000 capita per km2 and an area of 120000 m2. If the
average water flow is 300 L/capita. day. Estimate the
maximum rate to expected in m3/sec

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

Example-2
2. A 6 story building was constructed for an engineering
company. The building is an ordinary type structure with 10^3
m2 for each floor. Determine: the maximum rate, and the total
storage, for both domestic and fire demand in L/c/d. Knowing
that the building can serve 22 X 10^3 capita having an average
water consumption rate of 200 L/c/d?

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

 Example- 3
Determine the amount of water required for fire fighting that
extended to 3 hours in a concrete building contains five
stories, each with an area of 1500 m2, if the building is
located in residential area with a population about 3000 capita
and average water consumption (Qav = 670lcd) and find the
maximum water consumption at that day?

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

 Design of water supply network inside the building
Based on height of building & pressure required to operate fixtures
Water when brought into the building premise from the mains or from the
overhead tanks may be, either routed though the underground tank and overhead
reservoir through pumping or it may be fed directly to the various outlets of water
from mains.
Up feed System of Water Supply

In low buildings, cold water can be distributed by the up-feed

method .

In which at each story plumbing fixtures are served by branch

pipes connected to risers that carry water upward under pressure
from the water source.

If the water source pressure is not sufficient to provide adequate

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.
 Design of water supply network inside the building
Up feed (up flow)

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

 Design of water supply network inside the building
System of Down feed Water Supply

In buildings that cannot be adequately serviced by an up feed

system, water is pumped to elevated storage tanks and the water is
fed down into the building by gravity.
This gravity system, fed from the upper stories to the lower is called
a down feed distribution system
Where the water pressure in the municipal mains is high enough to
reach the terrace level.
Where electrical or diesel pumps are used the availability of power.
Water in the underground tank and pumping hours should be taken
into account.
Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.
 Design of water supply network inside the building
System of Down feed Water Supply

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

 Design of water supply network inside the building
Direct Water Supply System (Up feed)
Advantages:
Saving in pipe works especially in multistory buildings. (This is
due to cold water distribution pipe from the cistern being omitted)
Cheaper as the storage tank is no need.
No chance of water growing harmful bacteria.
Can deal with large demand more easily.
Disadvantages
If cold mains fail there wont be any emergency backup supply.
Cannot always supply cold water as the mains water pressure is
low (in peak hour).
More system noise asNotewater
Lecture is Z.under high pressure.
By Ashenafi
 Design of water supply network inside the building
System of Down feed Water Supply

Advantages:
There is no risk of back siphon age.
There is no tendency of pipe bursting due to the low pressure in pipe
work.
Adequate store in case of an interruption in the mains supply.
Disadvantages:
Longer Pipe runs are required
A larger storage cistern is necessary
Fresh drinking water is only available at the kitchen sink (or single
point)
Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.
 Main parts of water supply Systems(Parts of Water Distribution System :-

a. Building Supply
 Carries water from the city water supply system or other source to the building.
b. Water Meter:- Device used to measure in liters or gallons the amount of
water that passes through the water service.
c. Building Main
– Is the large pipe that carries water to the risers.
– The building main is run (located) in the basement, ceiling, crawl space or below
the concrete floor slab.
d. Riser: A water supply pipe that extends one full story or more to convey
water to branches or to a group of fixtures.
Is a water supply pipe that extends vertically in the building.
Carries water to fixture branches. It is connected to the building main.
Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.
 Main parts of water supply systems
e. Fixture Branch:-
The water supply pipe between the fixture supply pipe & the water
distributing pipe (The water supply pipe that runs from the riser or main to the
fixture being connection)
Supply the individual plumbing fixtures.
 Fixture branch is usually run (located) in the floor or in the wall behind the
fixtures.
f. Fixture Connection:- A fixture connection runs from the fixture branch to the
fixture.
 A shut-off valve is located in the hot and cold water supply at the fixture
connection
 SERVICE PIPE :- The pipe from the water main or other source of potable
water supply to the water distribution system of the building served.

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

 Systems of water supply
Water Supply Plumbing Systems In Building And Houses
It is necessary to know the following terms relating to
plumbing, principles and the common practices used in the
house plumbing
1. Water main: A water supply pipe vests in the
administrative authority for the use of public or community
2. Ferrule: It is gunmetal or bronze screwed into the hole
drilled in CI pipe mains.
Communication pipe takes off from the ferrule. The pressure
in the domestic supply and equal distribution among the
house connection are effected by adjusting the ferrule
opening. Normally the ferrule opening is equal in area to the
area of flow in communication pipe.
Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.
 Systems of water supply
Water supply plumbing systems in building and houses

3. Saddle: it is used in place of ferrule for mains of PVC pipes

4. Communication pipes: It is a pipe taking off from the ferrule for
the house connection. It is owned and managed by the water supply
authority. Communication pipe terminates at the boundary of the
consumers premises.
5. Service pipe : it is the part of the house connection beyond the stop
cock. It is owned and maintained by the consumer . No pumps shall
be installed on this pipe.
6. Water meter: It is installed to measure the flow. It is an integrating
meter that it records the total flow up to the time of measurement.
7. Residual pressure: It is generally measured at the ferrule and
should be about 7m head of water
8. Goose Neck: It is the short bent pipe and allow for small changes
in length due to expansion and movement of pipes due to soil
settlements Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.
THE HOUSE WATER CONNECTIONS

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

 Systems of water supply
Plumbing systems in water supplies

The following are the requirements of plumbing systems in water

supplies
1. Plumbing of water lines should be such as not to permit back flow
from cistern and sinks
2. All joints shall be perfectly water tight and no leakage or spill at
taps or cocks should be allowed
3. Pipelines should not be carried under walls or foundations.
4. It should not be close to sewers or waste water drains. There should
not be any possibility for cross connections.
5. When pipe lines are close to electric cables proper precautions for
insulation should be observed.

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.

 Systems of water supply
Plumbing systems in water supplies
6. plumbing lines should be such as to afford easy inspection and
repair of fixtures and joints.
7. Number of joints should be less and the number of bends and tees
should be less.
8. It should supply adequate discharge at fixtures economical in terms
of material and protected against corrosion , air lock, negative
pressure and noise due to flow in pipes and in flushing

Lecture Note By Ashenafi Z.