ECEN 667

Power System Stability

Lecture 19: Voltage Stability

Prof. Tom Overbye

Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Texas A&M University
[email protected]
 Announcements
• Read Chapter 8
• Homework 5 is due on Tuesday Nov 12

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 Single Phase Induction Motor Loads
• A new load model is one that explicitly represents the
behavior of single phase induction motors, which are
quite small and stall very quickly
– Single phase motors also start slower than an equivalent three
phase machine
• New single phase induction motor model (LD1PAC) is
a static model (with the assumption that the dynamics
are fast), that algebraically transitions between running
and stalled behavior based on the magnitude of the
terminal voltage

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Single Phase Induction Motor
Loads

Model is mostly
algebraic, but
with stalling
behavior

4
 Composite Load Models
• Many aggregate loads are best represented by a
combination of different types of load
– Known as composite load models
– Important to keep in mind tbat the actual load is
continually changing, so any aggregate load is at best an
approximation
– Hard to know load behavior to extreme disturbances
without actually faulting the load
• Early models included a number of loads at the
transmission level buses (with the step-down
transformer), with later models including a simple
distribution system model
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 CLOD Model
• The CLOD model represents the load as a combination
of large induction motors, small induction motors,
constant power, discharge lighting, and other

Transmission Bus

Distribution
Capacitors
Distribution Bus

Large Small Constant Discharge

Other
Motors Motors Power Lighting

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 CLOD Model
• Different load classes can be defined
Customer Large Motor Small Motor Discharge Constant Power Remaining (PI,
Class Lighting QZ)

Residential 0.0 64.4 3.7 4.1 27.8

Agriculture 10.0 45 20 4.5 19.5
Commercial 0.0 46.7 41.5 4.5 7.3
Industrial 65.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 4.0

Comparison of voltage recovery for different model types 7

 WECC Composite Load Model
• Contains up to four motors or single phase induction
motor models; also includes potential for solar PV

8
 Modeling Time Variation in Load
• Different time varying composite model parameters are
now being used

Example of varying composite load percentages over a day

9
 Current Research
• Current topics for load modeling research include
assessment of how much the load model maters
• Another issue is how to determine the load model
parameters – which ones are observable under what
conditions
– For example, motor stalling can not be observed except during
disturbances that actually cause the motors to stall
– Not important to precisely determine parameters that
ultimately do not have much influence on the final problem
solution; of course these parameters would be hard to observe
• Correctly modeling embedded distribution level
generation resources, such as PV, is important
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 Scientific Modeling Quotes
• "All models are wrong but some are useful,“
– George Box, Empirical Model-Building and Response
Surfaces, (1987, p. 424)
– Box went on to say that the practical question is how wrong
they have to be to not be useful
• “Everything should be made as
simple as possible, but not simpler.”
– Albert Einstein [maybe]
• “With four parameters I can fit an elephant, and
with five I can make him wiggle his trunk”.
– John von Neumann
“Drawing an elephant with four complex parameters” by Jurgen Mayer, Khaled Khairy, and Jonathon
Howard,  Am. J. Phys. 78, 648 (2010), DOI:10.1119/1.3254017 11
 Power System Voltage Stability
• Voltage Stability: The ability to maintain system
voltage so that both power and voltage are controllable.
System voltage responds as expected (i.e., an increase in
load causes proportional decrease in voltage).
• Voltage Instability: Inability to maintain system
voltage. System voltage and/or power become
uncontrollable. System voltage does not respond as
expected.
• Voltage Collapse: Process by which voltage instability
leads to unacceptably low voltages in a significant
portion of the system. Typically results in loss of
system load. 12
 Voltage Stability
• Two good references are
– P. Kundur, et. al., “Definitions and Classification of
Power System Stability,” IEEE Trans. on Power Systems,
pp. 1387-1401, August 2004.
– T. Van Cutsem, “Voltage Instability: Phenomena,
Countermeasures, and Analysis Methods,” Proc. IEEE,
February 2000, pp. 208-227.
• Classified by either size of disturbance or duration
– Small or large disturbance: small disturbance is just
perturbations about an equilibrium point (power flow)
– Short-term (several seconds) or long-term (many seconds
to minutes)
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 Small Disturbance Voltage Stability
• Small disturbance voltage stability can be assessed
using a power flow (maximum loadability)
• Depending on the assumed load model, the power
flow can have multiple (or no solutions)
• PV curve is created by plotting power versus voltage
Bus 1 x = 0.2 Bus 2
(Slack)
x = 0.2 P +jQ
L L Assume Vslack=1.0

PL  BV sin   0
QL  BV cos   BV 2  0

Where B is the line susceptance =-10,

V is the load voltage 14
 Small Disturbance Voltage Stability
• Question: how do the power flow solutions vary as
the load is changed?
• A Solution: Calculate a series of power flow
solutions for various load levels and see how they
change
• Power flow Jacobian
  BV cos   B sin  
J ( , V )   
  BV sin  B cos   2BV 
det J ( , V )  VB 2  2V cos   cos 2   sin 2  
Singular when  2V cos   1  0
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 Maximum Loadability When Power
Flow Jacobian is Singular
• An important paper considering this was by Sauer and
Pai from IEEE Trans. Power Systems in Nov 1990,
“Power system steady-state stability and the load-flow
Jacobian”
• Other earlier papers were looking at the characteristics
of multiple power flow solutions
• Work with the power flow optimal multiplier around
the same time had shown that optimal multiplier goes
to zero as the power flow Jacobian becomes singular
• The power flow Jacobian depends on the assumed
load model (we’ll see the impact in a few slides)
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 Relationship Between Stability and
Power Flow Jacobian
• The Sauer/Pai paper related system stability to the
power flow Jacobian by noting the system dynamics
could be written as a set of differential algebraic
equations
x  f (x, y , p)
0  g ( x, y , p )
Linearing about an equilibrium gives
 f f 
 x   x y   x 
 0    g  
g   y 
  
 x y 

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 Relationship Between Stability and
Power Flow Jacobian
• Then
g
Assuming is nonsingular then
y
 f f  g  1 g 
x       x
 x y  y  x 
• What Sauer and Pai show is if g/  y is singular then
the system is unstable; if g/  y is nonsingular then
the system may or may not be stable
• Hence it provides an upper bound on stability

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 Bifurcations
• In general, bifurcation is the division of something into
two branches or parts
• For a dynamic system, a bifurcation occurs when small
changes in a parameter cause a new quality of motion
of the dynamic system
• Two types of bifurcation are considered for voltage
stability
– Saddle node bifurcation is the disappearance of an equilibrium
point for parameter variation; for voltage stability it is two
power flow solutions coalescing with parameter variation
– Hopf bifurcation is cause by two eigenvalues crossing into the
right-half plane
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 PV and QV Curves
• PV curves can be traced by plotting the voltage as the
real power is increased; QV curves as reactive power is
increased
– At least for the upper portion of the curve
• Two bus example PV and QV curves

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Small Disturbance Voltage Collapse
• At constant frequency (e.g., 60 Hz) the complex power
transferred down a transmission line is S=VI*
– V is phasor voltage, I is phasor current
– This is the reason for using a high voltage grid
• Line real power losses are given by RI2 and reactive
power losses by XI2
– R is the line’s resistance, and X its reactance; for a high
voltage line X >> R
• Increased reactive power tends to drive down the
voltage, which increases the current, which further
increases the reactive power losses
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 PowerWorld Two Bus Example
x=0.2

x=0.2
Bus 1 Bus 2 0.933 pu

150 MW
slack
50 Mvar

Commercial power flow

software usually auto
converts constant power loads
at low voltages; set these
fields to zero to disable this
conversion
Case is Bus2_PV
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Power Flow Region of Convergence

Convergence
regions with
P=100 MW,
Q=0 Mvar

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Load Parameter Space Representation
• With a constant power model there is a maximum
loadability surface, S
– Defined as point in which the power flow Jacobian is
singular
– For the lossless two bus system it can be determined as

PL2 1
  QL  B  0
B 4

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 Load Model Impact
• With a static load model regardless of the voltage
dependency the same PV curve is traced
– But whether a point of maximum loadability exists
depends on the assumed load model
• If voltage exponent is > 1 then multiple solutions do not exist
(see B.C. Lesieutre, P.W. Sauer and M.A. Pai “Sufficient
conditions on static load models for network solvability,”NAPS
1992, pp. 262-271)
x=0.2
Change load to
Bus 1
x=0.2
Bus 2 0.943 pu constant impedance;
slack
133 MW hence it becomes a
44 Mvar
linear model

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 ZIP Model Coefficients
• One popular static load model is the ZIP; lots of
papers on the “correct” amount of each type

Table 1 from M. Diaz-Aguilo, et. al., “Field-Validated Load Model for the Analysis of CVR in Distribution Secondary Networks: Energy
Conservation,” IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, Oct. 2013

Table 7 from A, Bokhari, et. al., “Experimental Determination of the ZIP Coefficients for Modern Residential, Commercial, and Industrial
Loads,” IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, June. 2014 26
 Application: Conservation Voltage
Reduction (CVR)
• If the “steady-state” load has a true dependence on
voltage, then a change (usually a reduction) in the
voltage should result in a total decrease in energy
consumption
• If an “optimal” voltage could be determined, then this
could result in a net energy savings
• Some challenges are 1) the voltage profile across a
feeder is not constant, 2) the load composition is
constantly changing, 3) a decrease in power
consumption might result in a decrease in useable
output from the load, and 4) loads are dynamic and an
initial decrease might be balanced by a later increase 27