Chapter 04

Lecture Outline

4-1
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 Chapter 4
Histology: The Study of Tissues

4-2
 4.1 Tissues and Histology
• Tissue classification based on structure of cells,
composition of noncellular extracellular matrix,
and cell function
– Epithelial
– Connective
– Muscle
– Nervous
• Histology: Microscopic Study of Tissues
– Biopsy: removal of tissues for diagnostic purposes
– Autopsy: examination of organs of a dead body to
determine cause of death

4-3
 4.2 Embryonic Tissue
• Germ layers
– Endoderm
• Inner layer
• Forms lining of digestive tract and derivatives
– Mesoderm
• Middle layer
• Forms tissues as such muscle, bone, blood vessels
– Ectoderm
• Outer layer
• Forms skin and neuroectoderm

4-4
 4.3 Epithelial Tissue
• Consists almost entirely of cells
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• Covers body surfaces and forms
Lung
Free surface glands
Pleura
Epithelial cells with
little extracellular
– Outside surface of the body
matrix

– Lining of digestive, respiratory

LM 640x
and urogenital systems
Nucleus Surface view
– Heart and blood vessels
Basement
membrane
– Linings of many body cavities
Connective
tissue • Has free, basal, and lateral
Capillary

surfaces
LM 640x • Basement membrane
Cross-sectional view

b: © Victor Eroschenko; c: © Ed Reschke

• Specialized cell contacts
• Avascular
• Regenerate

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 Basement Membrane
• Extracellular: formed by secretions of both
epithelium and connective tissue. Acellular
“glue”
– Attachment to C.T.
– Guides cell migration during tissue repair
– Acts as a filter in the nephron of the kidney
– Not every epithelium has a basement membrane
associated with it

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 Functions of Epithelial Tissue
• Protecting underlying structures; e.g., epithelium
lining the mouth
• Acting as barriers; e.g., skin
• Permitting the passage of substances; e.g., nephrons
in kidney
• Secreting substances; e.g., pancreas
• Absorbing substances; e.g., lining of small intestine

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 Classification of Epithelium
• Number of layers of cells
– Simple- one layer of cells. Each extends from basement
membrane to the free surface
– Stratified- more than one layer. Shape of cells of the
apical layer used to name the tissue. Includes
transitional epithelium where the apical cell layers
change shape depending upon distention of the organ
which the tissue lines
– Pseudostratified- tissue appears to be stratified, but all
cells contact basement membrane so it is in fact simple
• Shape of cells
– Squamous- flat, scale-like
– Cuboidal- about equal in height and width
– Columnar- taller than wide
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 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.1 Classification of Epithelium

Number of Layers or Category Shape of Cells

Simple (single layer of cells) Squamous

Cuboidal
Columnar

Stratified (more than one layer of cells) Squamous

Nonkeratinized (moist)
Keratinized
Cuboidal (very rare)
Columnar (very rare)

Pseudostratified (modification of Columnar

simple epithelium)

Transitional (modification of Roughly cuboidal to columnar

stratified epithelium) when not stretched and
squamouslike when stretched

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 Functional Characteristics

• Simple: allows diffusion of gases, filtration

of blood, secretion, absorption
• Stratified: protection, particularly against
abrasion
• Squamous: allows diffusion or acts as filter
• Cuboidal and columnar: secretion or
absorption. May include goblet cells that
produce and secrete mucus.
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 Free Surfaces
Free surfaces of epithelium
• Smooth: reduce friction
• Microvilli: increase surface area for absorption or
secretion
– Stereocilia: elongated microvilli for sensation and
absorption
• Cilia: move materials across the surface
• Folds: in transitional epithelium where organ must
be able to change shape. Urinary system.

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 Simple Squamous Epithelium
• Structure: single layer of flat cells
• Location: simple squamous- lining of blood and lymphatic
vessels (endothelium) and small ducts, alveoli of the lungs, loop
of Henle in kidney tubules, lining of serous membranes
(mesothelium) and inner surface of the eardrum.
• Functions: diffusion, filtration, some protection against friction,
secretion, absorption.
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TABLE 4.2 Simple Epithelium

(a) Simple Squamous Epithelium

Structure: Single layer of flat, often Function: Diffusion, filtration, Location: Lining of blood vessels
hexagonal cells; the nuclei appear some secretion, and some and the heart, lymphatic vessels Kidney
as bumps when viewed as a cross protection against friction (endothelium) and small ducts,
section because the cells are so flat alveoli of the lungs, portions of the
kidney tubules, lining of serous
membranes (mesothelium) of the
body cavities (pleural, pericardial,
peritoneal), and inner surface of
the tympanic membranes

Free surface

Nucleus

Basement
membrane

Simple
squamous
epithelial
cell

LM 640x
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© Dr. Fred Hossler/Visuals Unlimited
 Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
• Locations: Kidney tubules, glands and their ducts, choroid plexus of the
brain, lining of terminal bronchioles of the lungs, and surface of the ovaries.
• Structure: single layer of cube-shaped cells; some types have microvilli
(kidney tubules) or cilia (terminal bronchioles of the lungs)
• Functions:
– Secretion and absorption in the kidney
– Secretion in glands and choroid plexus
– Movement of mucus out of the terminal bronchioles by ciliated cells.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.2 Simple Epithelium

(b) Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Structure: Single layer of cube- Function: Secretion and absorption Location: Kidney tubules, glands
shaped cells; some cells have by cells of the kidney tubules; and their ducts, choroid plexuses Kidney
microvilli (kidney tubules) or cilia secretion by cells of glands and of the brain, lining of terminal
(terminal bronchioles of the lungs) choroid plexuses; movement of bronchioles of the lungs, surfaces
particles embedded in mucus of the ovaries
out of the terminal bronchioles
by ciliated cells

Free surface

Nucleus

Simple
cuboidal
epithelial
cell

Basement
membrane

LM 640x
4-13
© Victor Eroschenko
 Simple Columnar Epithelium
• Location. Glands and some ducts, bronchioles of lungs, auditory tubes, uterus,
uterine tubes, stomach, intestines, gallbladder, bile ducts and ventricles of the brain.
• Structure: single layer of tall, narrow cells. Some have cilia (bronchioles of lungs,
auditory tubes, uterine tubes, and uterus) or microvilli (intestine).
• Functions:
– Movement of particles out of the bronchioles by ciliated cells
– Aids in the movement of oocytes through the uterine tubes by ciliated cells
– Secretion by glands of the stomach and the intestine
– Absorption by cells of the intestine. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.2 Simple Epithelium—Continued

(c) Simple Columnar Epithelium

Structure: Single layer of tall, Function: Movement of particles Location: Glands and some ducts,
narrow cells; some cells have cilia out of the bronchioles of the lungs bronchioles of the lungs, auditory Lining of
(bronchioles of lungs, auditory by ciliated cells; partially responsible tubes, uterus, uterine tubes, stomach and
tubes, uterine tubes, and uterus) for the movement of oocytes through stomach, intestines, gallbladder, intestines
or microvilli (intestines) the uterine tubes by ciliated cells; bile ducts, ventricles of the brain
secretion by cells of the glands,
the stomach, and the intestines;
absorption by cells of the small
and large intestines

Free surface

Goblet cell
containing mucus

Nucleus

Simple
columnar
epithelial
cell

Basement LM 640x
4-14
membrane

© Victor Eroschenko
Respiratory Epithelium

Respiratory
Cilia
epithelium

Goblet cells Ciliated cells

Lamina propria
 Stratified Squamous Epithelium
• Locations:
– Moist- mouth, throat, larynx, esophagus, anus, vagina, inferior urethra,
and cornea
– Keratinized- skin
• Structure: multiple layers of cells that are cuboidal in the basal
layer and progressively flatten toward the surface. In moist,
surface cells retain a nucleus and cytoplasm. In keratinized,
surface cells are dead.
• Functions: protection against abrasion, caustic chemicals,
water loss, and infection.
TABLE 4.3
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Stratified Epithelium
(a) Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Structure: Multiple layers of cells that Function: Protection against Location: Keratinized—primarily In Skin
are cube-shaped in the basal layer and abrasion, a barrier against the skin; nonkeratinized—mouth,
progressively flattened toward the surface; infection, reduction of water throat, larynx, esophagus, anus, Cornea
the epithelium can be nonkeratinized (moist) loss from the body vagina, inferior urethra, cornea
or keratinized; in nonkeratinized stratified Mouth
squamous epithelium, the surface cells retain
a nucleus and cytoplasm; in keratinized
stratified epithelium, the cytoplasm of
Esophagus
cells at the surface is replaced by a protein
called keratin, and the cells are dead

Free surface

Nonkeratinized
stratified
squamous
epithelial cell

Nuclei

Basement

4-16
membrane

LM 640x

© Victor Eroschenko
 Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
• Locations: sweat gland ducts, ovarian follicular cells, and
salivary gland ducts
• Structure: multiple layers of somewhat cube-shaped cells.
• Functions: secretion, absorption and protection against
infections. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.3 Stratified Epithelium—Continued

(b) Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

Structure: Multiple layers of Function: Secretion, absorption, Location: Sweat gland ducts,
somewhat cube-shaped cells protection against infection ovarian follicular cells, salivary
gland ducts

Parotid gland
duct
Sublingual
gland duct
Submandibular
gland duct

Free surface

Nucleus

Basement
membrane

Stratified
cuboidal
epithelial
LM 413x
cell
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b: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dr. Alvin Telser, photographer;
 Stratified Columnar Epithelium
• Locations: mammary gland duct, larynx, portion of male urethra.
• Structure: multiple layers of cells with tall thin cells resting on
layers of more cuboidal cells. Cells ciliated in the larynx.
• Function: protection and secretion.

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TABLE 4.3 Stratified Epithelium—Continued

(c) Stratified Columnar Epithelium

Structure: Multiple layers of cells Function: Protection, secretion Location: Mammary gland ducts,
with tall, thin cells resting on layers larynx, a portion of the male urethra
of more cube-shaped cells; the
cells are ciliated in the larynx Larynx

Free surface

Nucleus

Basement
membrane

Stratified
columnar
epithelial
cell
LM 413x 4-18
© Dr. Richard Kessel/Visuals Unlimited;
 Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
• Locations: lining of nasal cavity, nasal sinuses, auditory tubes,
pharynx, trachea, and bronchi of lungs.
• Structure: all cells reach basement membrane. Appears stratified
because nuclei are at various levels. Almost always ciliated and
associated with goblet (mucus-producing) cells.
• Functions:
– Synthesize and secrete mucus onto the free surface
– Move mucus (or fluid) that contains foreign particles over the free surface
and from passages Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.4 Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium and Transitional Epithelium

(a) Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

Structure: Single layer of cells; Function: Synthesize and secrete Location: Lining of the nasal cavity,
some cells are tall and thin and mucus onto the free surface; move nasal sinuses, auditory tubes,
reach the free surface, and others mucus (or fluid) that contains pharynx, trachea, bronchi of
do not; the nuclei of these cells foreign particles over the surface of the lungs Trachea
are at different levels and appear the free surface and from passages
stratified; the cells are almost Bronchus
always ciliated and are associated
with goblet cells that secrete
mucus onto the free surface

Cilia

Free surface

Goblet cell
containing mucus

Pseudostratified
columnar
epithelial cell

Nucleus

Basement
membrane 4-19
LM 413x

a : © Victor Eroschenko
 Transitional Epithelium
• Location: lining of urinary bladder, ureters and superior
urethra.
• Structure: stratified; cells change shape depending upon
amount of distention of the organ.
• Functions: accommodates fluctuations in the volume of
fluid in an organ or tube; protection against the caustic
effects of urine. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.4 Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium and Transitional Epithelium

(b) Transitional Epithelium

Structure: Stratified cells that Function: Accommodate Location: Lining of the urinary
appear cube-shaped when the fluctuations in the volume of fluid bladder, ureters, superior urethra
organ or tube is not stretched and in organs or tubes; protect against
squamous when the organ or tube the caustic effects of urine
is stretched by fluid; the number of
layers also decreases on stretch
Ureter

Free surface

Transitional Urinary bladder

epithelial cell Urethra

Nucleus

LM 413x

Basement
membrane

Free surface

Tissue not stretched Transitional

epithelial
cell
LM 413x

Nucleus

Basement
membrane
4-20
Tissue stretched

© Victor Eroschenko
 Urinary Bladder Histology

Bladder wall Transitional Lamina propria

epithelium

Submucosa Detrusor muscle

 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.5 Function and Location of Epithelial Tissue

LOCATION
Simple Squamous Simple Cuboidal Simple Columnar Stratified Squamous Stratified Cuboidal Stratified Columnar Pseudostratifie Transitional
Function Epithelium Epithelium Epithelium Epithelium Epithelium Epithelium Columnar Epithelium Epithelium
Diffusion Blood and lymphatic
capillaries, alveoli of
lungs, thin segments
of loops of Henle
Filtration Bowman capsules
of kidneys
Secretion or Mesothelium Choroid plexus Stomach, small
absorption (serous fluid) (produces cerebrospinal intestine, large
fluid), part of kidney intestine, uterus,
tubules, many glands many glands
and their ducts
ProtectionEndothelium Skin (epidermis),
(against friction (e.g., epithelium corneas, mouth and
and abrasion) of blood vessels) throat, epiglottis,
Mesothelium larynx, esophagus,
(e.g., epithelium anus, vagina
of body cavities)

Movement Terminal bronchioles Bronchioles of lungs, larynx, nasal cavity,

of mucus of lungs auditory tubes, uterine paranasal sinuses,
(ciliated) tubes, uterus nasopharynx, auditory
tubes, trachea, bronchi
of lungs
Capable Urinary bladder,
of great ureter, superior
stretching part of urethra
Miscellaneous Inner part of tympanic Surface of ovaries, Bile duct, gallbladder, Lower part of urethra, Sweat gland ducts Part of male urethra, Part of male urethra,
membranes, smallest inside lining of eyes ependyma (lining of sebaceous gland ducts epididymides, ductus salivary gland ducts
ducts of glands (pigmented epithelium brain ventricles and deferens, mammary
of retina), ducts of central canal of spinal gland ducts
glands cord), ducts of glands

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Free surface
Cell Connections
• Found on lateral and basal
Tight
surfaces of cells
junction
• Functions
Adhesion
belt
– Form permeability layer
Actin – Bind cells together
filaments

Channel
– Provide mechanism for
Desmosome
intercellular communication
Gap junction
• Types
Intermediate
filaments
– Desmosomes
– Tight junctions
– Gap junctions
Hemidesmosome

Basement membrane

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 Cell Connections
• Desmosomes: disk-shaped regions of cell membrane; often found in areas
that are subjected to stress.
– Contain especially adhesive glycoproteins.
– Intermediate protein filaments extend into cytoplasm of cells.
– Striated squamous epithelium of the skin.
• Hemidesmosomes: half of a desmosome; attach epithelial cells to
basement membrane.
• Tight Junctions: hold cells together, form permeability barrier.
– zonula adherens: between adjacent cells, weak glue, hold cells
together. Simple epithelium.
– zonula occludens: permeability barrier, e.g., stomach and urinary
bladder, chemicals cannot pass between cells.
• Gap Junctions: protein channels aid intercellular communication.
– Allows ions and small molecules to pass through.
– Coordinate function of cardiac and smooth muscle.
– May help coordinate movement of cilia in ciliated types of epithelium.
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 Glands
• Epithelium with supporting network of C.T.
• Two types of glands formed by infolding of
epithelium:
– Endocrine: no open contact with exterior; no ducts;
produce hormones
– Exocrine: open contact maintained with exterior; ducts
• Exocrine glands classified either by structure or by
the method of secretion
• Classified by structure
– Unicellular: goblet cells
– Multicellular
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 Multicellular Exocrine Glands
• Classified on the basis of types
of ducts or mode of secretion
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• Types of ducts Single gland cell

in epithelium
Unicellular

– Simple: ducts with few

(goblet cells in large and small
intestine and respiratory passages)

branches Duct

– Compound: ducts with Secretory

portion

many branches
• If ducts end in tubules or
Simple tubular Simple branched tubular Simple coiled tubular Simple acinar Simple branched acinar
(glands in stomach (glands in lower portion (lower portion of stomach (sebaceous glands (sebaceous glands of skin)
and colon) of stomach) and small intestine) of skin)

sac-like structures: acini.

(a) Simple glands

Pancreas Duct

• If ducts end in simple

Secretory
portions

sacs: alveoli. Lungs Compound tubular Compound acinar Compound tubuloacinar

(mucous glands of duodenum) (mammary glands) (pancreas)

(b) Compound glands

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 Method of Secretion Types
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Dying cell releases

Pinched-off portion secretory products
Secretion in duct of cell in the secretion

Vesicle releasing
contents into duct

Replacement
cell
Vesicle containing
secretory products

Secretory products Cell shed into

stored in the cell the duct

(a) Merocrine gland (b) Apocrine gland (c) Holocrine gland

Cells of the gland produce secretions by Secretory products are stored in the cell near Secretory products are stored in the
active transport or produce vesicles that the lumen of the duct. A portion of the cell cells of the gland. Entire cells are shed
contain secretory products, and the vesicles near the lumen containing secretory products by the gland and become part of the
empty their contents into the duct through is pinched off the cell and joins secretions secretion. The lost cells are replaced
exocytosis. produced by a merocine process. by other cells deeper in the gland.

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 4.4 Connective Tissue
• Abundant; found in every organ
• Consists of cells separated by extracellular
matrix
• Many diverse types
• Performs variety of important functions

4-28
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TABLE 4.6 Classification of Connective Tissue

Embryonic Connective Tissue

Mesenchyme
Mucous connective tissue

Adult Connective Tissue

Connective Tissue Proper
Loose (fewer fiber, more ground substance)
Areolar
Adipose
Reticular
Dense (more fiber, less ground substance)
Dense, regular collagenous
Dense, regular elastic
Dense, irregular collagenous
Dense, irregular elastic
SupportingConnectiveTissue
Cartilage (semisolidmatrix)
Hyaline
Fibrocartilage
Elastic
Bone (solid matrix)
Spongy
Compact
Fluid Connective Tissue
Blood
Red blood cells
White blood cells
Platelets
Hemopoietic tissue
Red marrow
Yellow marrow 4-29
 Functions of Connective Tissue
• Enclose organs as a capsule and separate
organs into layers
• Connect tissues to one another. Tendons
and ligaments.
• Support and movement. Bones.
• Storage. Fat.
• Cushion and insulate. Fat.
• Transport. Blood.
• Protect. Cells of the immune system.
4-30
 Cells of Connective Tissue

• Specialized cells produce the extracellular

matrix
• Descriptive word stems
– Blasts: create the matrix, example osteoblast
– Cytes: maintain the matrix, example
chondrocyte
– Clasts: break the matrix down for remodeling,
example osteoclasts
4-31
 Cells of Connective Tissue
• Adipose or fat cells (adipocytes). Common in some
tissues (dermis of skin); rare in some (cartilage)
• Mast cells. Common beneath membranes; along small
blood vessels. Can release heparin, histamine, and
proteolytic enzymes in response to injury.
• White blood cells (leukocytes). Respond to injury or
infection
• Macrophages. Phagocytize or provide protection
– Fixed: stay in position in connective tissue
– Wandering: move by amoeboid movement through the
connective tissue
• Platelets. Fragments of hematopoietic cells involved
in clotting.
• Undifferentiated mesenchyme (stem cells). Have
potential to differentiate into adult cell types. 4-32
 Extracellular Matrix
• Protein fibers of the matrix
– Collagen. Most common protein in body;
strong, flexible, inelastic
– Reticular. Fill spaces between tissues and
organs. Fine collagenous, form branching
networks
– Elastic. Returns to its original shape after
distension or compression. Contains molecules
of protein elastin that resemble coiled springs;
molecules are cross-linked

4-33
 Other Matrix Molecules
Most common molecules are called the ground
substance and include:
– Hyaluronic acid: polysaccharide. Good lubricant.
Vitreous humor of eye.
– Proteoglycans: protein and polysaccharide. Protein
part attaches to hyaluronic acid. Trap large amounts of
water.
– Adhesive molecules: hold proteoglycan aggregates
together. Chondronectin in cartilage, osteonectin in
bone, fibronectin in fibrous connective tissue.

4-34
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Collagen fibril

Collagen
fiber

(a) Collagen fibers.

Polypeptide chains

Linked

Stretched

Relaxed

Stretched elastin
Recoiled elastin
(b) Elastic fibers

Hyaluronic
acid
Link protein

Protein core
Chondroitin
sulfate
Water

(c) Proteoglycan aggregates.

4-35
 Embryonic Connective Tissue
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TABLE 4.7 Embryonic Connective Tissue

(a) Mesenchyme

Structure: The mesenchymal cells are Location: Mesenchyme is the embryonic tissue
irregularly shaped; the extracellular matrix
is abundant and contains scattered reticular
fibers
from which connective tissues, as well as other
tissues, arise
• Mesenchyme: source of
all adult connective tissue.
Intercellular
matrix
– Forms primarily from
Nuclei of
mesenchyme
cells
mesoderm
LM 200x – Delicate collagen fibers
(b) Mucous Connective Tissue embedded in semi-fluid
Structure: Mucous tissue is mesenchymal
tissue that remains unspecialized; the cells
are irregularly shaped; the extracellular
matrix is abundant and contains scattered
Location: Umbilical cord of newborn
matrix
Umbilical
reticular fibers

• Mucus: found only in the

cord

umbilical cord. Wharton’s

Intercellular
matrix

jelly.
Nuclei of
mucous
connective
tissue cells

LM 200x

a-b: © Victor Eroschenko

4-36
 Adult Connective Tissues
• Connective Tissue Proper
– Loose (areolar). Collagenous fibers are loosely
arranged
– Dense. Fibers form thick bundles that nearly fill
all extracellular space
• Supporting CT
– Cartilage
– Bone
• Fluid CT
– Blood 4-37
 Loose (Areolar) Connective Tissue
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TABLE 4.8 Connective Tissue Proper: Loose Connective Tissue

(a) Areolar Connective Tissue

Structure: Cells (e.g., fibroblasts, macrophages, and Function: Loose packing, support, and Location: Widely distributed throughout the body;
lymphocytes) within a fine network of mostly nourishment for the structures with substance on which epithelial basement membranes rest;
collagen fibers; often merges with denser which it is associated packing between glands, muscles, and nerves; attaches
connective tissue the skin to underlying tissues

Epidermis
Nucleus Elastic
fiber Skin

Dermis

Collagen
fiber Loose connective
tissue

Muscle
LM 400x
Fat

a:© Ed Reschke

• Loose packing material of most organs and tissues, also known as

stroma
• Attaches skin to underlying tissues. Superficial fascia = subcutaneous
layer = hypodermis
• Contains collagen, reticular, elastic fibers and all five types of cells
• Often seen in association with other types of C.T., like reticular tissue
and fat
• Cells include fibroblasts, mast cells, lymphocytes, adipose cells, 4-38
macrophages
 Connective Tissue with Special
Properties: Adipose
Predominant cells are adipocytes
• Yellow (white). Most abundant type, has a
wide distribution. White at birth and yellows Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

with age. TABLE 4.8

(b) Adipose Tissue
Connective Tissue Proper: Loose Connective Tissue

– Carotenes come from plants and can be

Structure: Little extracellular matrix surrounding Function: Packing material, thermal Location: Predominantly in subcutaneous areas, in
cells; the adipocytes are so full of lipid that the insulation, energy storage, and protection mesenteries, in renal pelvis, around kidneys, attached to
cytoplasm is pushed to the periphery of the cell of organs against injury from being the surface of the colon, in mammary glands, in loose
bumped or jarred connective tissue that penetrates spaces and crevices

metabolized into vitamin A.

– Scant ring of cytoplasm surrounding
Adipose
tissue

Nucleus
Mammary

single large lipid droplet. Nuclei

gland

Adipocytes

flattened and eccentric.

or fat cells

• Brown. Found only in specific areas of

LM 100x

© Carolina Biological Supply/Phototake.com

body: axillae, neck and near kidneys

– Cells are polygonal in shape, have a
considerable volume of cytoplasm and
contain multiple lipid droplets of
varying size. Nuclei are round and
almost centrally located.

4-39
 Connective Tissue with Special
Properties: Reticular Tissue
• Forms superstructure of lymphatic and hemopoietic tissues
• Network of fine reticular fibers and reticular cells.
• Spaces between cells contain white cells and dendritic
cells Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.8 Connective Tissue Proper: Loose Connective Tissue

(c) Reticular Tissue

Structure: Fine network of reticular fibers Function: Provides a superstructure for Location: Within the lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow
irregularly arranged lymphatic and hemopoietic tissues
Leukocytes

Reticular fibers

Lymph
node

Spleen

LM 280x

4-40
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Photo by Dr. Alvin Telser
 Dense Regular Collagenous
Connective Tissue
• Has abundant collagen
fibers that resist
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TABLE 4.9 Connective Tissue Proper: Dense Connective Tissue

stretching
(a) Dense Regular Collagenous Connective Tissue

Structure: Matrix composed of collagen Function: Able to withstand great pulling Location: Tendons (attach muscle to bone) and ligaments
fibers running in somewhat the same forces exerted in the direction of fiber (attach bones to each other)
direction orientation; great tensile strength and

– Tendons: Connect
stretch resistance

muscles to bones;
Ligament
Nucleus of
Tendon
fibroblast

fibers are not

Collagen
fibers

necessarily parallel
– Ligaments: Connect
bones to bones.
LM 165x LM 1000x

a1: © Victor Eroschenko; a2: © Ed Reschke/Peter Arnold, Inc.

Collagen often less

compact, usually
flattened, form sheets
or bands
4-41
 Anterior
Extensor
cruciate
digitorum
ligament
muscle and
of the knee
tendons
 Dense Regular Elastic
Connective Tissue
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.9 Connective Tissue Proper: Dense Connective Tissue

(b) Dense Regular Elastic Connective Tissue

Structure: Matrix composed of regularly Function: Able to stretch and recoil like a rubber band, Location: Vocal folds and elastic ligaments between
arranged collagen fibers and elastic fibers with strength in the direction of fiber orientation the vertebrae and along the dorsal aspect of the neck

Base of tongue
Vocal folds
(true vocal cords)
Elastic Vestibular fold
fibers (false vocal cord)
Nucleus of
fibroblast

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© Victor Eroschenko

• Ligaments in vocal folds; nuchal ligament

• Collagen fibers give strength (for when you
shout), but elastic fibers are more prevalent 4-43
Dense Irregular Collagenous Connective Tissue
• Protein fibers arranged in a randomly oriented network
• Forms innermost layer of the dermis of the skin, scars,
capsules of kidney and spleen
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.9 Connective Tissue Proper: Dense Connective Tissue—Continued

(c) Dense Irregular Collagenous Connective Tissue

Structure: Matrix composed of collagen fibers Function: Tensile strength capable of withstanding Location: Sheaths; most of the dermis of the skin;
that run in all directions or in alternating planes stretching in all directions organ capsules and septa; outer covering of body
of fibers oriented in a somewhat single direction tubes

Epidermis
Epidermis
Skin

Dermis

Dense
irregular Loose connective
collagenous tissue
connective
tissue of
dermis
Muscle
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Fat

© Ed Reschke/Peter Arnold, Inc.

4-44
Dense Irregular Elastic Connective Tissue
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.9 Connective Tissue Proper: Dense Connective Tissue

(d) Dense Irregular Elastic Connective Tissue

Structure: Matrix composed of bundles and Function: Capable of strength, with stretching and Location: Elastic arteries
sheets of collagenous and elastic fibers oriented recoil in several directions
in multiple directions

Dense irregular
elastic connective
tissue
Aorta

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© Ed Reschke

• Bundles and sheets of collagenous and elastic

fibers oriented in multiple directions
• In walls of elastic arteries
4-45
• Strong, yet elastic
 Supporting Connective Tissue: Cartilage
• Composed of chondrocytes located in matrix-surrounded
spaces called lacunae.
• Type of cartilage determined by components of the matrix.
• Firm consistency.
• Ground substance: Proteoglycans and hyaluronic acid
complexed together trap large amounts of water. Tissue
can spring back after being compressed.
• Avascular and no nerve supply. Heals slowly.
• Perichondrium. Dense irregular connective tissue that
surrounds cartilage. Fibroblasts of perichondrium can
differentiate into chondroblasts.
• Types of cartilage
– Hyaline
– Fibrocartilage
– Elastic
4-46
 Hyaline Cartilage
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.10 Supporting Connective Tissue: Cartilage

(a) Hyaline Cartilage

Structure: Collagen fibers are small and evenly Function: Allows the growth of long Location: Growing long bones, cartilage rings of the
dispersed in the matrix, making the matrix appear bones; provides rigidity with some respiratory system, costal cartilage of ribs, nasal cartilages,
transparent; the cartilage cells, or chondrocytes, flexibility in the trachea, bronchi, ribs, articulating surface of bones, embryonic skeleton
are found in spaces, or lacunae, within the firm and nose; forms rugged, smooth, yet
but flexible matrix somewhat flexible articulating surfaces;
forms the embryonic skeleton

Bone

Hyaline
cartilage

Chondrocyte
in alacuna

Nucleus

Matrix

LM 240x

© Carolina Biological Supply/Phototake.com

• Structure: large amount of collagen fibers evenly distributed in

proteoglycan matrix. Smooth surface in articulations
• Locations:
– Found in areas for strong support and some flexibility: rib
cage, trachea, and bronchi
– In embryo forms most of skeleton 4-47
– Involved in growth that increases bone length
 Hyaline Cartilage
Perichondrium Matrix

Lacunae with
chondrocytes
Fibrous layer of
perichondrium

Chondrogenic
layer
of perichondrium
 Fibrocartilage
• Structure: thick collagen fibers distributed in proteoglycan matrix;
slightly compressible and very tough
• Locations: found in areas of body where a great deal of pressure is
applied to joints
– Knee, jaw, between vertebrae
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.10 Supporting Connective Tissue: Cartilage

(b) Fibrocartilage

Structure: Collagen fibers similar to those in Function: Somewhat flexible and Location: Intervertebral disks, symphysis pubis
hyaline cartilage; the fibers are more numerous capable of withstanding considerable pressure; articular disks (e.g., knee and temporomandibular
than in other cartilages and are arranged in connects structures subjected to great pressure [jaw] joints)
thick bundles

Chondrocyte
in lacuna
Nucleus

Inter vertebral
disk
Collagen fibers
in matrix

LM 240x

© Victor Eroschenko
4-49
 Fibrocartilage

Lacuna Matrix
 Elastic Cartilage
• Structure: elastic and collagen fibers embedded in
proteoglycans. Rigid but elastic properties
• Locations: external ears and epiglottis
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.10 Supporting Connective Tissue: Cartilage

(c) Elastic Cartilage

Structure: Similar to hyaline cartilage, but Function: Provides rigidity with even more Location: External ears, epiglottis, auditory tubes
matrix also contains elastic fibers flexibility than hyaline cartilage because elastic
fibers return to their original shape after being
stretched

Elastic fibers
in matrix

Chondrocytes
in lacunae

Nucleus

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© Victor Eroschenko

4-51
 Elastic Cartilage
Matrix with elastic fibers

Perichondrium Fibrous
perichondrium

Chondrogenic
layer of Lacunae with
perichondrium chondrocytes
Supporting Connective Tissue: Bone
• Hard connective tissue composed of living cells
(osteocytes) and mineralized matrix
• Matrix: gives strength and rigidity; allows bone to
support and protect other tissues and organs
– Organic: collagen fibers
– Inorganic: hydroxyapatite (Ca plus PO4)
• Osteocytes located in lacunae
• Types
– Spongy bone
– Compact bone

4-53
 Bone
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Spongy bone: trabeculae

TABLE 4.11 Supporting Connective Tissue: Bones

(a) Spongy Bone

of bone with spaces

Structure: Latticelike network of scaffolding Function: Acts as scaffolding to provide Location: In the interior of the bones of
characterized by trabeculae with large spaces strength and support without the greater the skull, vertebrae, sternum, and pelvis;
between them filled with hemopoietic tissue; weight of compact bone in the ends of the long bones
the osteocytes, or bone cells, are located

between. Looks like a

within lacunae in the trabeculae

Osteoblast
nuclei Spongy bone

Bone
trabecula sponge. Found inside
bones.
Bone marrow
Osteocyte
nucleus
Matrix

LM 240x
• Compact bone: arranged
(b) Compact Bone

Structure: Hard, bony matrix predominates; Function: Provides great strength and support; Location: Outer portions of all bones,
in concentric circle layers
around a central canal that
many osteocytes (not seen in this bone preparation) forms a solid outer shell on bones that keeps the shafts of long bones
are located within lacunae that are distributed them from being easily broken or punctured
in a circular fashion around the central canals;
small passageways connect adjacent lacunae

Lacuna
contains a blood vessel.
Central
canal Found on periphery of
Matrix
organized
Compact bone
bones.
into lamellae
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a: © Victor Eroschenko; b: © Trent Stephens

4-54
 Spongy Bone Histology Trabecula
e

Periosteum Marrow
 Osteons Perforating canals
Compact
Bone

Central canals Interstitial lamellae

 Osteons
Osteon Interstitial lamella

Central canal Lacunae

Canaliculi
 Fluid Connective Tissue: Blood
• Matrix: plasma
– Liquid and lacks fibers.
– Matrix formed by other tissues, unlike other types of connective tissue.
– Moves through vessels, but both fluid and cells can move in/out of the vessels.
• Formed elements: red cells, white cells, and platelets
• Hemopoietic tissue
– Forms blood cells
– Two types of bone marrow
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
• Yellow TABLE 4.12 Fluid Connective Tissue: Blood and Hemopoietic Tissue

• Red (a) Blood

Structure: Blood cells and a fluid Function: Transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, Location: Within the blood vessels; white blood
matrix hormones, nutrients, waste products, and other cells frequently leave the blood vessels and enter
substances; protects the body from infections and the interstitial spaces
is involved in temperature regulation

Red blood cell

White White blood

blood cell
cells

Red
blood
cells

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© Ed Reschke

4-58
 Fluid Connective Tissue: Hemopoietic Tissue
• Forms blood cells
• Found in bone marrow
• Types of bone marrow
– Red: hemopoietic tissue surrounded by a framework of
reticular fibers. Produces red and white cells
– Yellow: yellow adipose tissue
• As children grow, yellow marrow replaces much of red marrow.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.12 Fluid Connective Tissue: Blood and Hemopoietic Tissue

(b) Bone Marrow

Structure: Reticular framework Function: Produces new blood cells (red marrow); Location: Within marrow cavities of bone; two types:
with numerous blood-forming cells stores lipids (yellow marrow) (1) red marrow (hemopoietic, or blood-forming,
(red marrow) tissue) in the ends of long bones and in short, flat,
and irregularly shaped bones and (2) yellow marrow,
mostly adipose tissue, in the shafts of long bones

Cells destined
to become red
blood cells
Spongy bone
(with red m arrow)

Marrow cavity
(with yellow marrow)

Fat

Nuclei

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4-59
© Ed Reschke
 4.5 Muscle Tissue
• Characteristics
– Contracts or shortens with force
– Moves entire body and pumps blood
• Types
– Skeletal: most attached to skeleton, but some attached
to other types of connective tissue. Striated and
voluntary.
– Cardiac: muscle of the heart. Striated and involuntary.
– Smooth: muscle associated with tubular structures and
with the skin. Nonstriated and involuntary.

4-60
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.13 Comparison of Muscle Types

Skeletal Muscle Cardiac Muscle Smooth Muscle

Location Attached to bones In the heart In the walls of hollow organs, blood
vessels, eyes, glands, skin

Cell Shape Very long, cylindrical cells (1–4 cm and may Cylindrical cells that branch Spindle-shaped cells (15–200 µm in
extend the entire length of the muscle, (100–500 µm in length, 12–20 length, 5–8 µm in diameter)
10–100 µm in diameter) µm in diameter)

Nucleus Multinucleated, peripherally located Single, centrally located Single, centrally located

Striations Yes Yes No

Control Voluntary(conscious) Involuntary(unconscious) Involuntary (unconscious)

Ability to Contract No Yes Yes

Spontaneously

Function Moves the body Provides the major force for moving Moves food through the digestive
blood through the blood vessels tract, empties the urinary bladder,
regulates blood vessel diameter,
changes pupil size, contracts many
gland ducts, moves hair, performs
many other functions

Special Features None Branching fibers, intercalated Gap junctions

disks containing gap junctions
joining the cells to each other

4-61
 Skeletal Muscle
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.14 Muscle Tissue

(a) Skeletal Muscle

Structure: Skeletal muscle cells or Function: Moves the body; is under Location: Attached to bone or other
fibers appear striated (banded); cells voluntary (conscious) control connective tissue
are large, long, and cylindrical, with
many nuclei located at the periphery
Muscle

Nucleus (near periphery

of cell)

Skeletal
muscle
fiber

Striations
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© Ed Reschke

4-62
 Skeletal Muscle

A band I band Nuclei

 Cardiac Muscle
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.14 Muscle Tissue—Continued

(b) Cardiac Muscle

Structure: Cardiac muscle cells are Function: Pumps the blood; is under Location: In the heart
cylindrical and striated and have a involuntary (unconscious) control
single, centrally located nucleus; they
are branched and connected to one
another by intercalated disks, which
contain gap junctions

Nucleus (central)

Cardiac
muscle cell

Intercalated disks
(special junctions
between cells )

Striations

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© Ed Reschke

4-64
Cardiac Muscle Branched cell

Cardiac nuclei

Intercalated discs
 Smooth Muscle
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.14 Muscle Tissue—Continued

(c) Smooth Muscle

Structure: Smooth muscle cells are Function: Regulates the size of Location: In hollow organs, such
tapered at each end, are not striated, organs, forces fluid through tubes, as the stomach and small and
and have a single nucleus controls the amount of light entering large intestines Wall of stomach
the eye, and produces “goose flesh”
Wall of colon
in the skin; is under involuntary
(unconscious) control
Wall of small
intestine

Nucleus

Smooth
muscle cell
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4-66
 Smooth Muscle

Smooth muscle cell Nuclei

 4.6 Nervous Tissue: Neurons
• Neurons or nerve cells have the ability to
produce action potentials
– Parts:
• Cell body: contains nucleus
• Axon: cell process; conducts impulses away from
cell body; usually only one per neuron
• Dendrite: cell process; receive impulses from other
neurons; can be many per neuron
– Types:
• Multipolar, bipolar, and unipolar

4-68
 Neurons
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.15 Types of Neurons

(a) Multipolar Neuron

Structure: The neuron consists of Function: Neurons transmit information Location: In the brain,
dendrites, a cell body, and a long in the form of action potentials, spinal cord, ganglia Brain
axon; neuroglia, or support cells, store “information,” and integrate and
surround the neurons evaluate data; neuroglia support,
protect, and form specialized sheaths Spinal
around axons cord
Spinal
nerves

Dendrite

Cell body
of neuron

Nucleus
of neuron

Nuclei of
neuroglia cells

Neuroglia cells
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Axon

(b) Pseudo-Unipolar Neuron

Structure: The neuron consists of a cell Function: Conducts action potentials Location: In ganglia outside the
body with one axon from the periphery to the brain or spinal brain and spinal cord
cord

Nuclei of
neuroglia

Cell body
of neuron

Nucleus
of neuron

Branches of axon
(not visible in
photomicrograph)
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4-69
a-b: © Trent Stephens
Multipolar Neuron

Cell body
Dendrites

Axon
 Nervous Tissue: Neuroglia

• Support cells of the Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

brain, spinal cord and Nuclei of

neuroglia

nerves Cell body

of neuron

• Nourish, protect, and Nucleus

of neuron

insulate neurons
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© Trent Stephens

4-71
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

4.7 Tissue Membranes

• Mucous
(a) Mucous membranes

Respiratory
– Line cavities that open to the
Digestive outside of body
– Secrete mucus
(b) Serous membranes
– Contains epithelium with goblet
Pleural cells, basement membrane, lamina
Peritoneal propria (sometimes with smooth
muscle)
– Found in respiratory, digestive,
urinary and reproductive systems.
• Serous. simple squamous epithelium
called mesothelium, basement
(c) Synovial membrane membrane, thin layer of loose C.T.
– Line cavities not open to exterior
• Pericardial, pleural, peritoneal
• Synovial
– Line freely movable joints
– Produce fluid rich in hyaluronic
acid

4-72
4.8 Tissue Damage and Inflammation
• Responds to tissue damage or with an immune
response
• Manifestations
– Redness, heat, swelling, pain, disturbed function
• Chemical Mediators
– Include histamine, kinins, prostaglandins, leukotrienes
– Stimulate pain receptor and increase blood vessel
permeability as well movement of WBCs to affected
area.

4-73
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Splinter
Bacteria
introduced

1A splinter in the skin causes damage and

introduces bacteria. Chemical mediators of
inflammation are released or activated in 1 Epidermis
injured tissues and adjacent blood vessels .
Some blood vessels rupture, causing
bleeding.

2Chemical mediators cause capillaries to

dilate and the skin to become red. Chemical 2 Dermis
mediators also increase capillary
permeability, and fluid leaves the capillaries,
producing swelling (arrows). Blood
vessel

Bacteria
proliferating

3 White blood cells (e.g., neutrophils) leave the

dilated blood vessels and move to the site of
bacterial infection, where they begin to
3
phagocytize bacteria and other debris.

Neutrophil
phagocytizing
bacteria Neutrophil
migrating through
4-74
blood vessel wall
 4.9 Tissue Repair
• Substitution of dead/damaged cells by
viable/functional cells
• Types of cells
– Labile: capable of mitosis through life. skin, mucous
membranes, hemopoietic tissue, lymphatic tissue
– Stable: no mitosis after growth ends, but can divide
after injury. Liver, pancreas, endocrine cells
– Permanent: if killed, replaced by a different type of
cell. Limited regenerative ability. nervous, skeletal and
cardiac muscle

4-75
 Skin Repair
• Primary union: Edges of wound are close together
– Wound fills with blood
– Clot forms: fibrin threads start to contract; pull edges
together
– Scab
– Inflammatory response; pus forms as white cells die
– Granulation tissue. Replaces clot, delicate C.T.
composed of fibroblasts, collagen fibers, capillaries
– Scar. Formed from granulation tissue. Tissue turns
from red to white as capillaries are forced out.
• Secondary union: Edges of wound are not closed; greater
chance of infection
– Clot may not close gap
– Inflammatory response greater
– Wound contraction occurs leading to greater scarring
4-76
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
New epidermis
Scab
growing into wound
Blood
clot

1 Epidermis
2

Blood
vessel

Dermis

Subcutaneous
fat

Neutrophils
migrating to
wound site Fibroblasts migrating
to wound site
1 Fresh wound cuts through the epithelium (epidermis) 2 Approximately 1 week after the injury, a scab is present,
and underlying connective tissue (dermis), and a clot and epithelium (new epidermis) is growing into the wound.
forms.

Freshly healed
New epidermis
epidermis Scab

Epidermis

Subcutaneous
fat

Granulation tissue Granulation tissue being

(fibroblasts replaced with new
proliferating) connective tissue
3 Approximately 2 weeks after the injury, the epithelium 4 Approximately 1 month after the injury, the wound has
has grown completely into the wound, and fibroblasts completely closed, the scab has been sloughed, and the 4-77
have formed granulation tissue. granulation tissue is being replaced by new connective
tissue.
 4.10 Effects of Aging on Tissues
• Cells divide more slowly
• Collagen fibers become more irregular in structure, though
they may increase in number
– Tendons and ligaments become less flexible and more fragile
• Elastic fibers fragment, bind to calcium ions, and become
less elastic
– Arterial walls and elastic ligaments become less elastic
• Changes in collagen and elastin result in
– Atherosclerosis and reduced blood supply to tissues
– Wrinkling of the skin
– Increased tendency for bones to break
• Rate of blood cell synthesis declines in the elderly
• Injuries don’t heal as readily 4-78