Statistical Analysis of Experimental Density Data: Purpose of The Experiment
Statistical Analysis of Experimental Density Data: Purpose of The Experiment
Relative Error
The relative error is the difference between
the measured value of an observable and its true
value, normalized to the true value.
Xi − Xt
Er =
Xt
The Average or Mean Value (xbar)
N
∑X i
X = i =1
N
The average or mean of a set of numbers, Xi, is found by
adding the numbers and dividing by the number of values, N.
Population Mean
N
∑X i
N→∞
i=1
μ=
N
The Standard Deviation
The standard deviation, a measure of the spread of N values, Xi,
about the average value, , a measure of precision, is given by,
N
2
(X
∑ i −μ )
σ= i =1
N
s= i=1
N −1
Determination of the Density of Glass Beads
You will measure the mass and volume of the glass beads several
times. Thus you will know their average mass, m, and an estimate its
standard deviation, sm, and their average volume, V, and an estimate of its
standard deviation, sV. The density, d, of the beads is given by,
m
d=
V
and an estimate of the standard deviation in the density, sd, is given by,
⎛sm ⎞2 ⎛sV ⎞2
sd = ±d ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟
⎝ m ⎠ ⎝V ⎠
Note: It is meaningless to report a density without units (e.g. g/cm3 ).
The appropriate units MUST always be given.
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Standard Deviation in the Density
Note: the corresponding standard deviation in the density,
d, is given by,
⎛σ m ⎞2 ⎛σ V ⎞2
σ d = ±d ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟
⎝ m ⎠ ⎝V ⎠
⎛ ∂d ⎞2 2 ⎛ ∂d ⎞2 2
σd = ± ⎜ ⎟ σ m + ⎜ ⎟ σ V
⎝∂m ⎠ ⎝∂V ⎠
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For the density, the partial derivatives are
∂d 1 ∂d m
= =− 2
∂m V ∂V V
and the weighted contribution to the error is given by
1 m
∗σ m ∗σ V
V V 2
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and combined by taking the square root of the sum of the squares,
⎛ ∂d ⎞2 2 ⎛ ∂d ⎞2 2 yielding
σd = ± ⎜ ⎟ σ m + ⎜ ⎟ σ V
€⎠
⎝∂m ⎝∂V ⎠ € ⎛σ m ⎞2 ⎛σ V ⎞2
σ d = ±d ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟
⎝ m ⎠ ⎝V ⎠
⎛ m1 ⎞2 2 ⎛ m ⎞2 2
σd = ± ⎜ ⎟ σ m + ⎜− 2 ⎟ σ V
⎝ mV ⎠ ⎝ V ⎠ or
⎛ sm ⎞2 ⎛ sV ⎞2
⎛ d ⎞2 2 ⎛ d ⎞2 2 € sd = ±d ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟
σd = ± ⎜ ⎟ σ m + ⎜ ⎟ σ V
⎝m ⎠ ⎝V ⎠ ⎝ m ⎠ ⎝V ⎠
Confidence Limit
tσ
X±
N
where t is Student’s t-factor.
Zeros between non-zero digits are significant, for example, 12.507 has five
significant figures.
Zeros to the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant, for example,
1.02 has three significant figures, 0.12 has two significant figures, and 0.012
also has two significant figures.
If a number ends in zeros to the right of the decimal point, those zeros are
significant, for example, 2.0 has two significant figures and 2.00 has three
significant figures.
Taring sets the balance to Zero. In order to avoid drift, make sure the
balance has been set to zero before starting the experiment. Press the
Tare button. Wait for the balance to read 0.000 g.
To Weigh The Glassbeads
Weigh the Beaker. Record the weight on the datasheet (in pen). Add the
glassbeads to the beaker. Record the weight on the datasheet. Repeat.
What Can Go Wrong?
zero
Determine the volume using all certain digits plus one uncertain digit.
Certain digits are determined from the calibration marks on the cylinder.
The uncertain digit, the last digit of the volume, is then estimated.
Determination of Certain Digits