THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

MC102 nur – Human Anatomy and Physiology

March 30 – April 4, 2020
St. Paul University Philippines - College of Nursing School of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences - 2nd Semester 2018-2019
 Learning Objectives
On completion of the week’s activity, the students shall be
able to:

• describe the general functions of the nervous system

• describe the organization of the nervous system

• describe the structures in each of the divisions of the

nervous system
 Learning Objectives
• recall the conduction of a nerve impulse

• describe a reflex arc

• predict the outcomes of disturbed nervous system

functions
 General System Functions
• Nervous system
– bears a major responsibility for maintaining
body homeostasis

– chief functions:
• monitor, integrate, & respond to information in the
environment

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 Organization of the Nervous System
• Anatomical divisions of the nervous
system are

– central nervous system (brain & spinal cord)

– peripheral nervous system (cranial & spinal nerves)

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 Organization of the Nervous System:
How is the nervous system anatomically organized?

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 Organization of the Nervous System
• Functional divisions of the nervous system
are:

– sensory (afferent) division

• conveys impulses to the CNS

– motor (efferent) division*

• conveys impulses from the CNS

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 How Do The Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems Work Together?
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 Organization of the Nervous System
Furthermore, the motor division includes:

– the somatic (voluntary) system

• serves skeletal muscles

– the autonomic (involuntary) system**

• innervates smooth & cardiac muscle & glands

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 Organization of the Nervous System:
How is the nervous system functionally organized?

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 Central Nervous System:
What are the components of the CNS?

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 The Brain

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 The Brain
• Brain
– provides for:
• voluntary movements
• interpretation
• integration of sensation
• consciousness
• cognitive function

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 The Brain
Regions & Organization:
• Adult brain is divided into

– cerebral hemispheres (left & right)

– diencephalon

– brain stem

– cerebellum

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 The Brain
Ventricles:
• Brain contains 4 ventricles filled with
cerebrospinal fluid:

– 2 lateral ventricles (in the cerebral hemispheres)

– third ventricle (in the diencephalon)

– fourth ventricle (in the brain stem)

• connects with the central canal of the spinal cord

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 The Brain: What are ventricles?

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 The Brain
Cerebral Hemispheres:

• 2 cerebral hemispheres
– exhibit gyri, sulci, & fissures:
• longitudinal fissure partially separates the
hemispheres
• other fissures or sulci subdivide each hemisphere into
(cerebral) lobes

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 The Brain: How does your brain look like?

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 The Brain: What are the functions of the cerebral lobes?

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 The Brain: What are the functions of the cerebral lobes?

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 The Brain
• Cerebral hemispheres show lateralization
of cortical function:

• the left hemisphere

– is dominant
(i.e., specialized for language & mathematical skills)

• the right hemisphere

– is more concerned with visual-spatial skills & creative
endeavors.

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 The Brain:
Which cerebral hemisphere is more concerned
with language & calculations?

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 The Brain
Diencephalon:
• The diencephalon
– encloses the third ventricle
– includes:
thalamus,
hypothalamus, &
epithalamus

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 The Brain:
Where is the hypothalamus located in the diencephalon?

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 The Brain
• The thalamus
– the major relay station for
(1) sensory impulses ascending to the sensory
cortex,
(2) inputs from subcortical motor nuclei &
the cerebellum travelling to the cerebral motor
cortex, &
(3) impulses travelling to association cortice from
lower centers

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 The Brain
• The hypothalamus

– an important autonomic nervous system control

center
– a pivotal part of the limbic system
– maintains water balance & regulates thirst, eating
behavior, gastro-intestinal activity, body
temperature, & the activity of the anterior pituitary
gland

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 The Brain:
How does the hypothalamus maintain homeostasis?

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 The Brain
• The epithalamus
– includes the pineal gland
• secretes the hormone melatonin

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 The Brain
Brainstem:
• The brainstem
– includes:
• midbrain
• pons
• medulla oblongata

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The Brain: Which structures does the brainstem connect?

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 The Brain
• The midbrain
– contains:
• the corpora quadrigemina (visual & auditory reflex
centers)
• the red nucleus (subcortical motor centers)
• the substantia nigra

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 The Brain
• The pons

– mainly a conduction area

– its nuclei contribute to regulation of respiration

& cranial nerves V–VII

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 The Brain
• The pyramids form the ventral face of the
medulla oblongata
– these fibers cross over before entering the spinal cord

– important nuclei in the medulla regulate respiratory

rhythm, heart rate, & blood pressure & serve cranial
nerves VIII–XII

– the olivary nuclei & cough, sneezing, swallowing, &

vomiting centers are also in the medulla

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 The Brain
Cerebellum:
– also called the “little brain”
– consists of 2 hemispheres, marked by convolutions &
separated by the vermis
– coordinates motor activity so that smooth, well-timed
movements occur

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 The Brain:
Does the cerebellum help in the way a person moves?

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 The Brain

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 Protection of the Brain:
What happened to the brain?

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 Protection of the Brain
• The brain (and the spinal cord) is protected by

bone,
meninges,
cerebrospinal fluid, &
the blood-brain barrier

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 Protection of the Brain:
What protects the brain?

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 Protection of the Brain
Meninges:
• The meninges from superficial to deep are:
• the dura mater
• the arachnoid mater
• the pia mater

– enclose the brain, spinal cord & their blood

vessels

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 Protection of the Brain

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 Protection of the Brain
Cerebrospinal Fluid:
• (CSF), formed by

the choroid plexuses from blood plasma,

circulates through the ventricles &
into the subarachnoid space.
– returns to the dural venous sinuses via the
arachnoid villi
– supports & cushions the brain & cord & helps
to nourish them

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 Protection of the Brain:
Where does the CSF flow?

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 Protection of the Brain
Blood-Brain Barrier:
– reflects the relative impermeability of the
(BBB)

epithelium of capillaries of the brain

– allows water, respiratory gases, essential

nutrients, & fat-soluble molecules to enter the
neural tissue
• but prevents entry of other, water-soluble,
potentially harmful substances

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 Protection of the Brain:
How the does BBB look like?

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 The Spinal Cord
Gross Anatomy & Protection:
– a 2-way impulse conduction pathway

– a reflex center

– resides within the vertebral column &

– protected by meninges & cerebrospinal fluid

– extends from the foramen magnum to the end of the first lumbar
(L₁) vertebra

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 The Spinal Cord:
Where is the spinal cord found?

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 The Spinal Cord
• 31 pairs of spinal nerve roots issue from
the cord

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 The Spinal Cord
Cross-sectional Anatomy:
• The central gray matter of the cord is
H-shaped
– ventral horns mainly contain somatic motor
neurons
– lateral horns contain visceral (autonomic) motor
neurons
– dorsal horns contain interneurons

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 The Spinal Cord

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 Peripheral Nervous System:
What are the components of the PNS?

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 Peripheral Nervous System
• The peripheral nervous system consists
of:
sensory receptors
nerves conducting impulses to & from the
CNS
their associated ganglia &
motor endings

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 Cranial Nerves
• 12 pairs of cranial nerves
– originate from the brain

– emerge through the skull to innervate the

head & neck

– but only the vagus nerves extend into the

thoracic & abdominal cavities

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 Cranial Nerves
• The cranial nerves (CN) include

1. Olfactory nerves (I):

concerned with the sense of smell

2. Optic nerves (II):

transmit visual impulses from the retina
to the thalamus

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 Cranial Nerves:
Which CN helps this child to smell her environment?

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 Cranial Nerves:
Which CN helps you to see?

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 Cranial Nerves
3. Oculomotor nerves (III):
emerge from the midbrain &
serve 4 extrinsic eyeball muscles,
the levator palpebrae superioris of the eyelid, &
the intrinsic ciliary muscle of
the eye & constrictor fibers of the iris

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 Cranial Nerves:
Which CN helps your eyeballs to move about?

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 Cranial Nerves
4. Trochlear nerves (IV):
emerge from the dorsal midbrain &
carry motor & proprioceptor impulses to
& from superior oblique muscles of the
eyeballs

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 Cranial Nerves:
Which CN helps your eyeballs to move about?

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 Cranial Nerves
5. Trigeminal nerves (V):
emerge from
the lateral pons as the major general sensory
nerves of the face

has three sensory divisions: ophthalmic,

maxillary, & mandibular;
the mandibular branch also contains motor fibers
that innervate the chewing muscles

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 Cranial Nerves:
Which CN helps you to chew your food?

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 Cranial Nerves
6. Abducens nerves (VI):
emerge from the pons &
serve the motor & proprioceptive
functions of the lateral rectus muscles
of the eyeballs

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 Cranial Nerves:
Which CN helps your eyeballs to move about?

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 Cranial Nerves
7. Facial nerves (VII):
emerge from the pons as
the major motor nerves of the face

carry sensory impulses

from the taste buds of anterior 2/3 of
the tongue

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 Cranial Nerves:
Which CN helps you to taste & to express your face?

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 Cranial Nerves
8. Vestibulocochlear nerves (VIII):
transmit impulses from the hearing &
equilibrium receptors of the inner ears

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 Cranial Nerves:
Which CN helps you to hear &
to maintain balance?

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 Cranial Nerves
9. Glossopharyngeal nerves (IX):
transmit sensory impulses from the taste
buds of the posterior 1/3 of the tongue,

innervate some pharyngeal muscles &

parotid glands

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 Cranial Nerves:
Which CN helps you to taste & to swallow?

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 Cranial Nerves
10. Vagus nerves (X):
almost all motor fibers are autonomic
parasympathetic fibers;

motor efferents to, & sensory fibers from,

the pharynx, larynx, & visceral organs of
the thoracic & abdominal cavities

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 Cranial Nerves
11. Spinal accessory nerves (XI):
consist of a cranial root arising from the
medulla & a spinal root arising from the
cervical spinal cord

supply somatic efferents to the trapezius &

sternomastoid muscles of the neck & carries
proprioceptor afferents from the same
muscles

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 Cranial Nerves:
Which CN helps you to swallow, to shrug your shoulders, &
to move your head laterally (to the sides)?

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 Cranial Nerves
12. Hypoglossal nerves (XII):
arise from the medulla & carry somatic
motor efferents to, &
proprioceptive fibers from,
the tongue muscles

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 Cranial Nerves:
Which CN helps you to move your tongue about?

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 Spinal Nerves
• 31 pairs of spinal nerves (all mixed nerves)
are numbered successively according to
the region of the spinal cord from which
they emerge

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 Spinal Nerves

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 Spinal Nerves
• Spinal nerves

– formed by the union of dorsal & ventral roots

of the spinal cord

– short, confined to the intervertebral foramina

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 Spinal Nerves
• Cervical plexus (C –C )
1 4

– innervates the muscles & skin of the neck &

shoulder

– phrenic nerve serves the diaphragm

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 Spinal Nerves
• Brachial plexus
– serves the shoulder, some thorax muscles, &
the upper limbs

– arises primarily from C5–T1

– (proximal to distal) has roots, trunks, divisions, &

cords
• main nerves arising from the cords are the axillary,
musculocutaneous, median, radial, & ulnar nerves

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 Spinal Nerves
• Lumbar plexus (L –L ) 1 4

– provides
• the motor supply to the anterior & medial thigh
muscles &
• the cutaneous (sensory) supply to the anterior thigh
& part of the leg

– (chief nerves) of the femoral & obturator

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 Spinal Nerves
• Sacral plexus (L –S ) 4 4

– supplies the posterior muscles & skin of the

lower limb

– (principal nerve) of the

large sciatic nerve composed of the tibial
& common fibular nerves

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 Let’s recall about the neurons!

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 Histology of Nervous System
Neurons:
• Neurons
– have a cell body & cytoplasmic processes
(axons & dendrites)

• A bundle of nerve fibers is called a tract in the CNS & a

nerve in the PNS

• A collection of cell bodies is called

nucleus (in the CNS) & a ganglion in the PNS

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 The Neuron
Parts of a neuron: a. The cell body contains the nucleus surrounded by
the cytoplasm; b. The axon propagates nerve impulses toward another
neuron, a muscle fiber, or a gland cell; c. The dendite is the receiving or
input portion of a neuron.

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 Histology of Nervous System
Neuroglia:
• Neuroglia (supporting cells)
– segregate neurons
– insulate neurons
– assist neurons (e.g. nourishment)
• CNS neuroglia include
– astrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells, &
oligodendrocytes
• PNS neuroglia include
– Schwann cells & satellite cells

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 Histology of Nervous System

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 Histology of Nervous System
• Large nerve fibers (axons) are myelinated.
• myelin sheath is formed:
in the PNS by Schwann cells &
in the CNS by oligodendrocytes
• sheath has gaps called nodes of Ranvier

• Unmyelinated fibers are surrounded by

supporting cells, but the membrane-
wrapping process does not occur

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 Histology of Nervous System:
Why is myelin sheath important for neurons?

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 Neurophysiology
The Resting Membrane Potential:
• A resting neuron exhibits a resting
membrane potential, which is –70 mV (inside
negative)

– due to both differences in sodium & potassium

ion concentrations inside & outside the cell &
differences in permeability of the membrane to
these ions

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 Neurophysiology
– ionic concentration differences result from the
operation of the sodium-potassium pump,
which ejects 3Na+ from the cell for each 2K+
transported in

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 Neurophysiology
Membrane Potentials That Act As Signals:

• Depolarization
– reduction in membrane potential
(inside becomes less negative)

• Hyperpolarization
– increase in membrane potential
(inside becomes more negative)

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 Neurophysiology
• Action potential (AP), or nerve impulse

– large, but brief, depolarization signal (& polarity

reversal)

– underlies long-distance neural communication

– an all-or-none phenomenon

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 Neurophysiology:
How does a neuron conduct impulses?

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 Neurophysiology
• In unmyelinated fibers (large),
APs are produced in a wave all along
the axon by continuous conduction

• In myelinated fibers,
APs are generated only at nodes of
Ranvier & are propagated more rapidly
by saltatory conduction

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 Neurophysiology
• Synapse

– functional junction between neurons

• the information-transmitting neuron is

the presynaptic neuron

• the information-receiving neuron is

the postsynaptic neuron

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 Neurophysiology:
How do impulses reach your brain from your fingertips and back ?

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 Neurophysiology
• Neurotransmitters
– diffuse across the synaptic cleft (e.g. acetylcholine
– attach to postsynaptic membrane receptors,
opening the ion channels

– after binding, the neurotransmitters are

removed from the synapse by
• enzymatic breakdown (e.g. action of acetylcholinesterase)
• reuptake into the presynaptic terminal

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 Reflex Activity

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 The Reflex Arc
• Reflex is a rapid,
involuntary motor response to a stimulus

– reflex arc has 5 elements:

receptor, sensory neuron, integration

center, motor neuron, & effector

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 The Reflex Arc:
What composes a reflex arc?

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 Spinal Reflexes
• Somatic spinal reflexes
– provides information on
• the integrity of the reflex pathway &
• the degree of excitability of the spinal cord

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 Spinal Reflexes
• Somatic spinal reflexes include

stretch,
Golgi tendon,
flexor,
crossed-extensor, &
superficial reflexes

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 Spinal Reflexes
• Stretch reflex
– initiated by stretching of muscle spindles
– causes contraction of the stimulated muscle &
inhibits its antagonist
– monosynaptic & ipsilateral
– maintains muscle tone & body posture

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 Spinal Reflexes

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 Spinal Reflexes
• Golgi tendon reflexes
– initiated by stimulation of Golgi tendon organs
by excessive muscle tension
– polysynaptic reflexes
– cause relaxation of the stimulated muscle &
contraction of its antagonist to prevent muscle
& tendon damage

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 Spinal Reflexes
• Flexor reflexes
– initiated by painful stimuli
– polysynaptic, ipsilateral reflexes that are
protective in nature

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 Spinal Reflexes
• Crossed-extensor reflexes
– consist of:
• ipsilateral flexor reflex &
• contralateral extensor reflex

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 Spinal Reflexes

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 Spinal Reflexes
• Superficial reflexes
– (e.g., the plantar & abdominal reflexes)
– elicited by cutaneous stimulation
– require functional cord reflex arcs &
corticospinal pathways

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 Spinal Reflexes:
How do you demonstrate (elicit) a plantar reflex?

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 Spinal Reflexes:
What is a Babinski response?

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 Autonomic Nervous System:
What are the 2 major divisions of the ANS?

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 Autonomic Nervous System
• Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
– motor division of the PNS that controls
visceral activities, with the goal of maintaining
internal homeostasis

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 Autonomic Nervous System
ANS Divisions:
• ANS consists of 2 divisions:
• the parasympathetic
• the sympathetic

– normally exert antagonistic effects on many of

the same target organs

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 Autonomic Nervous System
• Parasympathetic division (the resting-digesting system)
– conserves body energy
– maintains body activities at basal levels

– include activities:
• pupillary constriction (mioisis)
• glandular secretion
• increased digestive tract motility (smooth muscle activity)
leading to elimination of feces & urine

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 Autonomic Nervous System
• Sympathetic division (the fight-or-flight system)
– prepares the body for activity

– includes activities:
• dilated pupils (mydriasis)
• increased heart rate (tachycardia)
• increased blood pressure (hypertension)
• dilation of the bronchioles of the lungs (bronchodilation)
• increased blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia)
• sweating

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 Autonomic Nervous System:
What effect does running have on your ANS?

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 ANS Physiology:
What do you feel when you are riding in a roller coaster?

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 ANS Physiology:
What is the importance of knowing how ANS works within us?

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 ANS Physiology:
Have you experienced this?

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References:
• Vanputte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019). Seeley’s
Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (10th Ed.) New York
City, McGraw Hill Education

• Marieb, E.N. (2006). Essentials of Human Anatomy and

Physiology. San Francisco, Pearson.

• Tortora, G. J. (2006). Principles of Anatomy and

Physiology. (11th. Ed.). New Jersey, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc.