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Analog to Digital Conversion

Digital to Analog Conversion
ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
A digital signal is superior to an analog
signal. The tendency today is to change
an analog signal to digital data.
• Modulation is the process of varying one or more parameters of a carrier
signal in accordance with the instantaneous values of the message signal.
• The message signal is the signal which is being transmitted for
communication and the carrier signal is a high frequency signal which has
no data, but is used for long distance transmission.

• There are many modulation techniques, which are classified according to

the type of modulation employed.

• Of them all, the digital modulation technique used is Pulse Code

Modulation PCM
A signal is pulse code modulated to convert its analog information into a binary
sequence, i.e., 1s and 0s. The output of a PCM will resemble a binary sequence.
The following figure shows an example of PCM output with respect to instantaneous
values of a given sine wave.

         
Instead of a pulse train, PCM produces a series of numbers
or digits, and hence this process is called as digital. Each
one of these digits, though in binary code, represent the
approximate amplitude of the signal sample at that instant.
In Pulse Code Modulation, the message signal is
represented by a sequence of coded pulses. This message
signal is achieved by representing the signal in discrete
form in both time and amplitude.
Components for PCM method
Basic Elements of PCM
The transmitter section of a Pulse Code Modulator circuit consists
of Sampling, Quantizing and Encoding, which are performed in the
analog-to-digital converter section. The low pass filter prior to sampling
prevents aliasing of the message signal.
The basic operations in the receiver section are regeneration of
impaired signals, decoding, and reconstruction of the quantized
pulse train. Following is the block diagram of PCM which represents the
basic elements of both the transmitter and the receiver sections.
Low Pass Filter
This filter eliminates the high frequency components present in the input
analog signal which is greater than the highest frequency of the message
signal, to avoid aliasing of the message signal.

Sampler
This is the technique which helps to collect the sample data at instantaneous
values of message signal, so as to reconstruct the original signal. The
sampling rate must be greater than twice the highest frequency
component W of the message signal, in accordance with the sampling
theorem.

Quantizer
Quantizing is a process of reducing the excessive bits and confining the
data. The sampled output when given to Quantizer, reduces the redundant
bits and compresses the value.
Encoder

The digitization of analog signal is done by the encoder. It

designates each quantized level by a binary code. The sampling
done here is the sample-and-hold process. These three
sections LPF,Sampler,andQuantizerLPF,Sampler,andQuantizer wi
ll act as an analog to digital converter. Encoding minimizes the
bandwidth used.
Regenerative Repeater
This section increases the signal strength. The output of the channel also has one
regenerative repeater circuit, to compensate the signal loss and reconstruct the
signal, and also to increase its strength.

Decoder
The decoder circuit decodes the pulse coded waveform to reproduce the original
signal. This circuit acts as the demodulator.

Reconstruction Filter
After the digital-to-analog conversion is done by the regenerative circuit and the
decoder, a low-pass filter is employed, called as the reconstruction filter to get
back the original signal.
Hence, the Pulse Code Modulator circuit digitizes the given analog signal, codes it
and samples it, and then transmits it in an analog form. This whole process is
repeated in a reverse pattern to obtain the original signal.
Sampling is the process of converting analog signal into a
discrete signal or making an analog or continuous signal to occur
at a particular interval of time, this phenomena is known as
sampling.

SAMPLING THEOREM:-
Sampling theorem states that a band limited signal having no 
frequency components higher than fm  hertz can be sampled if
its sampling freq is equal to or greater than Nyquist rate.

Sampling Techniques
Their are basically three types of Sampling
techniques, namely:
1. Natural Sampling
2. Flat top Sampling
3. Ideal Sampling
The following figure indicates a continuous-
time signal x tt and a sampled signal xs tt.
When x tt is multiplied by a periodic impulse
train, the sampled signal xs tt is obtained.
Sampling Rate
To discretize the signals, the gap between the samples
should be fixed. That gap can be termed as a sampling
period Ts.

Sampling frequency is the reciprocal of

the sampling period. This sampling
frequency, can be simply called
as Sampling rate.
2. Flat Top Sampling:
Flat top sampling is like natural sampling i.e; practical in nature.
In comparison to natural sampling flat top sampling can be easily
obtained. In this sampling techniques, the top of the samples
remains constant and is equal to the instantaneous value of the
message signal x(t) at the start of sampling process. Sample and
hold circuit are used in this type of sampling.

Block Diagram and Waveform

•Figure(a), shows functional diagram of a sample hold circuit which

is used to generate fat top samples.
•Figure(b), shows the general waveform of the flat top samples. It
can be observed that only starting edge of the pulse represent the
instantaneous value of the message signal x(t).
3. Ideal Sampling:

Ideal Sampling is also known as Instantaneous sampling or Impulse Sampling.Train of

impulse is used as a carrier signal for ideal sampling. In this sampling technique the
sampling function is a train of impulses and the principle used is known as
multiplication principle.

Figure (a), represent message signal or input

signal or signal to be sampled.

Figure (b), represent the sampling function.

Figure (c), represent the resultant signal.

Three different sampling methods for PCM
 1. Natural Sampling:
Natural Sampling is a practical method of
sampling in which pulse have finite width equal
to τ. Sampling is done in accordance with the
carrier signal which is digital in nature.

Functional Diagram of Natural

Sampler
With the help of functional diagram of a Natural
sampler, a sampled signal g(t) is obtained by
multiplication of sampling function c(t) and the
input signal x(t).

Spectrum of Natural Sampled Signal is given

by:
G(f) = Aτ/ Ts .[ Σ sin c(n fs.τ) X(f-n fs)]
Note

According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must be

at least 2 times the highest frequency contained in the signal.

Nyquist sampling rate for low-pass and bandpass signals
 Example

For an example of the Nyquist theorem, let us sample a simple sine wave at three sampling rates: f s =

4f (2 times the Nyquist rate), fs = 2f (Nyquist rate), and

fs = f (one-half the Nyquist rate). Figure 4.24 shows the sampling and the subsequent recovery of the

signal.

It can be seen that sampling at the Nyquist rate can create a good approximation of the original sine

wave (part a). Oversampling in part b can also create the same approximation, but it is redundant and

unnecessary. Sampling below the Nyquist rate (part c) does not produce a signal that looks like the

original sine wave.

Recovery of a sampled sine wave for different sampling rates
A complex low-pass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz. What is the minimum sampling rate for

this signal?

Solution

The bandwidth of a low-pass signal is between 0 and f, where f is the maximum frequency in the

signal. Therefore, we can sample this signal at 2 times the highest frequency (200 kHz). The

sampling rate is therefore 400,000 samples per second.

Quantization and encoding of a sampled signal
 Example

We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate, assuming 8 bits per sample?

Solution

The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0 to 4000 Hz. So the sampling rate and bit

rate are calculated as follows:

Components of a PCM decoder
The process of delta modulation
Delta modulation components

4.31
Delta demodulation components
 Digital Specifications
• The relationship between analog
signals and their digital equivalent is
important to the overall
performances of a system.

4.33
 Factors that determine the
relationship between an analog and
its corresponding digital value

1. Accuracy
2. Resolution

4.34
 Accuracy

Accuracy – is how perfect and correct the

digital equivalent of the original analog
value being compared to other “BETTER”
standard.
Ex. temp from 100 C to 105 C
resistance from 10 K to 10.3 K

4.35
 Resolution

Resolution – shows how fine the

gradations of the digital value are, or into
how many distinct values the overall
signal span has been divided.

Ex. Digital Camera pixel value

Analog to Digital Conversion Specifications

4.36
 Quantization
• Is the process of converting the
sampled signal to a binary value
• Each voltage level will correspond to
a different binary number
v
1.0

¼ t
0 to 1 V- analog signal
0

4.38
 v
111
1.0
110

101
¾
100

011 ½
010

001
¼ 0 to 1 V- analog signal t
The same signal with a resolution of 1 in 8 parts
000 (three bits)
0

4.39
 v
11 1.0
¾
10
½
01
¼ 0 to 1 V- analog signal t
00 The same signal with a resolution of 1 in 4 parts
0 (two bits)

4.40
Pulse Code Modulation
The size of each division or magnitude of the
minimum step is called the STEP SIZE
Quantization Error (Quantization Noise)
- is used to describe that a digital value
corresponds to a distinct span of analog signals.
To reduce the quantization error, more divisions
(higher resolution)are used to represent the
analog value.

4.42
 Dynamic Range
This is the ratio of the largest to smallest

analogue signal that can be transmitted .

But Vmin is the resolution and can be written as

It follows that
 If this is expressed in decibels

From

It can be observed that the DR is the

Maximum binary number for a system. With one code used for 0V

which is not considered in calculating DR, it is observed that