Kelis King

Capability Maturity Model

(CMM)

 A bench-mark for measuring the maturity of

an organization’s software process
 CMM defines 5 levels of process maturity
based on certain Key Process Areas (KPA)
CMM Levels
Level 5 – Optimizing (< 1%) Level 2 – Repeatable (~ 15%)
-- process change management -- software configuration
-- technology change management management
-- defect prevention -- software quality
assurance
Level 4 – Managed (< 5%)
-- software project
-- software quality management tracking and oversight
-- quantitative process management -- software project
Level 3 – Defined (< 10%) planning
-- peer reviews -- requirements
-- intergroup coordination management
-- software product engineering Level 1 – Initial (~ 70%)
-- integrated software management
-- training program
-- organization process definition
-- organization process focus
SDLC Model

A framework that describes the activities

performed at each stage of a software
development project.
Waterfall Model
 Requirements – defines needed
information, function, behavior,
performance and interfaces.
 Design – data structures,
software architecture, interface
representations, algorithmic
details.
 Implementation – source code,
database, user documentation,
testing.
Waterfall Strengths

 Easy to understand, easy to use

 Provides structure to inexperienced staff
 Milestones are well understood
 Sets requirements stability
 Good for management control (plan, staff, track)
 Works well when quality is more important than
cost or schedule
Waterfall Deficiencies

 All requirements must be known upfront

 Deliverables created for each phase are
considered frozen – inhibits flexibility
 Can give a false impression of progress
 Does not reflect problem-solving nature of
software development – iterations of phases
 Integration is one big bang at the end
 Little opportunity for customer to preview the
system (until it may be too late)
When to use the Waterfall
Model
 Requirements are very well known
 Product definition is stable
 Technology is understood
 New version of an existing product
 Porting an existing product to a new platform.

 High risk for new systems because of specification and

design problems.
 Low risk for well-understood developments using
familiar technology.
V-Shaped SDLC Model

 A variant of the Waterfall

that emphasizes the
verification and validation
of the product.
 Testing of the product is
planned in parallel with a
corresponding phase of
development
  Production, operation and
V-Shaped Steps maintenance – provide for
 Project and Requirements enhancement and corrections
Planning – allocate resources
 System and acceptance testing
– check the entire software
 Product Requirements and system in its environment
Specification Analysis –
complete specification of the  Integration and Testing – check
software system that modules interconnect
correctly
 Architecture or High-Level
Design – defines how  Unit testing – check that each
software functions fulfill the module acts as expected
design
 Coding – transform algorithms
 Detailed Design – develop into software
algorithms for each
architectural component
V-Shaped Strengths

 Emphasize planning for verification and

validation of the product in early stages of
product development
 Each deliverable must be testable
 Project management can track progress by
milestones
 Easy to use
V-Shaped Weaknesses

 Does not easily handle concurrent events

 Does not handle iterations or phases
 Does not easily handle dynamic changes in
requirements
 Does not contain risk analysis activities
When to use the V-Shaped
Model
 Excellent choice for systems requiring high
reliability – hospital patient control
applications
 All requirements are known up-front
 When it can be modified to handle changing
requirements beyond analysis phase
 Solution and technology are known
Protoyping: Basic Steps

 Identify basic requirements

 Including input and output info
 Details (e.g., security) generally ignored
 Develop initial prototype
 UI first
 Review
 Customers/end –users review and give feedback
 Revise and enhance the prototype & specs
 Negotiation about scope of contract may be
necessary
Dimensions of prototyping

 Horizontal prototype
 Broad view of entire system/sub-system
 Focus is on user interaction more than low-level
system functionality (e.g. , databsae access)
 Useful for:
 Confirmation of UI requirements and system scope
 Demonstration version of the system to obtain buy-
in from business/customers
 Develop preliminary estimates of development
time, cost, effort
Dimensions of Prototyping

 Vertical prototype
 More complete elaboration of a single sub-system
or function
 Useful for:
 Obtaining detailed requirements for a given function
 Refining database design
 Obtaining info on system interface needs
 Clarifying complex requirements by drilling down to
actual system functionality
Types of prototyping

 Throwaway /rapid/close-ended prototyping

 Creation of a model that will be discarded rather
than becoming part of the final delivered software
 After preliminary requirements gathering, used to
visually show the users what their requirements
may look like when implemented
 Focus is on quickly developing the model
 not on good programming practices
 Can Wizard of Oz things
Fidelity of Protype

 Low-fidelity
 Paper/pencil
 Mimics the functionality, but does not look like it
Fidelity of Protype

 Medium to High-fidelity
 GUI builder
 “Click dummy” prototype – looks like the system,
but does not provide the functionality
 Or provide functionality, but have it be general
and not linked to specific data
Throwaway Prototyping steps

 Write preliminary requirements

 Design the prototype
 User experiences/uses the prototype,
specifies new requirements
 Repeat if necessary
 Write the final requirements
 Develop the real products
Evolutionary Prototyping

 Aka breadboard prototyping

 Goal is to build a very robust prototype in a
structured manner and constantly refine it
 The evolutionary prototype forms the heart
of the new system and is added to and
refined
 Allow the development team to add features
or make changes that were not conceived in
the initial requirements
Evolutionary Prototyping
Model
 Developers build a prototype during the
requirements phase
 Prototype is evaluated by end users
 Users give corrective feedback
 Developers further refine the prototype
 When the user is satisfied, the prototype code
is brought up to the standards needed for a
final product.
EP Steps
 A preliminary project plan is developed
 An partial high-level paper model is created
 The model is source for a partial requirements
specification
 A prototype is built with basic and critical attributes
 The designer builds
 the database
 user interface
 algorithmic functions
 The designer demonstrates the prototype, the user
evaluates for problems and suggests improvements.
 This loop continues until the user is satisfied
EP Strengths

 Customers can “see” the system requirements as

they are being gathered
 Developers learn from customers
 A more accurate end product
 Unexpected requirements accommodated
 Allows for flexible design and development
 Steady, visible signs of progress produced
 Interaction with the prototype stimulates
awareness of additional needed functionality
Incremental prototyping

 Final product built as separate prototypes

 At the end, the prototypes are merged into a
final design
Extreme Prototyping

 Often used for web applications

 Development broken down into 3 phases,
each based on the preceding 1
1. Static prototype consisting of HTML pages
2. Screen are programmed and fully functional
using a simulated services layer
 Fully functional UI is developed with little regard
to the services, other than their contract
3. Services are implemented
Prototyping advantages

 Reduced time and cost

 Can improve the quality of requirements and
specifications provided to developers
 Early determination of what the user really wants can
result in faster and less expensive software
 Improved/increased user involvement
 User can see and interact with the prototype, allowing
them to provide better/more complete feedback and
specs
 Misunderstandings/miscommunications revealed
 Final product more likely to satisfy their desired
look/feel/performance
Disadvantages of prototyping
1 
Insufficient analysis
 Focus on limited prototype can distract
developers from analyzing complete project
 May overlook better solutions
 Conversion of limited prototypes into poorly
engineered final projects that are hard to maintain
 Limited functionality may not scale well if used as
the basis of a final deliverable
 May not be noticed if developers too focused on
building prototype as a model
Disadvantages of prototyping
2 
User confusion of prototype and finished
system
 Users can think that a prototype (intended to be
thrown away) is actually a final system that needs
to be polished
 Unaware of the scope of programming needed to
give prototype robust functionality
 Users can become attached to features included in
prototype for consideration and then removed
from final specification
Disadvantages of prototyping
3 
Developer attachment to prototype
 If spend a great deal of time/effort to produce,
may become attached
 Might try to attempt to convert a limited
prototype into a final system
 Bad if the prototype does not have an appropriate
underlying architecture
Disadvantages of prototyping
4 
Excessive development time of the prototype
 Prototyping supposed to be done quickly
 If developers lose sight of this, can try to build a
prototype that is too complex
 For throw away prototypes, the benefits realized
from the prototype (precise requirements) may
not offset the time spent in developing the
prototype – expected productivity reduced
 Users can be stuck in debates over prototype
details and hold up development process
Disadvantages of prototyping
5 
Expense of implementing prototyping
 Start up costs of prototyping may be high
 Expensive to change development methodologies
in place (re-training, re-tooling)
 Slow development if proper training not in place
 High expectations for productivity unrealistic if
insufficient recognition of the learning curve
 Lower productivity can result if overlook the need
to develop corporate and project specific
underlying structure to support the technology
Best uses of prototyping

 Most beneficial for systems that will have

many interactions with end users
 The greater the interaction between the
computer and the user, the greater the
benefit of building a quick system for the user
to play with
 Especially good for designing good human-
computer interfaces
Spiral SDLC Model
 Adds risk
analysis, and 4gl
RAD prototyping
to the waterfall
model
 Each cycle
involves the
same sequence
of steps as the
waterfall process
model
Determine objectives
Evaluate alternatives
alternatives and identify, resolve risks
constraints Risk
analysis
Risk
analysis
Risk
analysis Opera-
Prototype 3 tional
Prototype 2 protoype
Risk
REVIEW analy sis Proto-
type 1
Requirements plan Simulations, models, benchmarks
Life-cycle plan Concept of
Operation S/W
requirements Product
design Detailed
Requirement design
Development
plan validation Code
Design Unit test
Integration
and test plan V&V Integr ation
Plan next phase test
Acceptance
Service test Develop, verify
next-level product
Spiral Quadrant: Determine objectives,
alternatives and constraints

 Objectives: functionality, performance,

hardware/software interface, critical success
factors, etc.
 Alternatives: build, reuse, buy, sub-contract, etc.
 Constraints: cost, schedule, interface, etc.
Spiral Quadrant: Evaluate
alternatives, identify and resolve
risks
 Study alternatives relative to objectives and
constraints
 Identify risks (lack of experience, new
technology, tight schedules, poor process, etc.
 Resolve risks (evaluate if money could be lost by
continuing system development
Spiral Quadrant: Develop next-
level product
 Typical activites:
 Create a design
 Review design
 Develop code
 Inspect code
 Test product
Spiral Quadrant: Plan next phase

 Typical activities
 Develop project plan
 Develop configuration management plan
 Develop a test plan
 Develop an installation plan
Spiral Model Strengths

 Provides early indication of insurmountable risks,

without much cost
 Users see the system early because of rapid
prototyping tools
 Critical high-risk functions are developed first
 The design does not have to be perfect
 Users can be closely tied to all lifecycle steps
 Early and frequent feedback from users
 Cumulative costs assessed frequently
 Spiral Model Weaknesses
 Time spent for evaluating risks too large for small or low-
risk projects
 Time spent planning, resetting objectives, doing risk
analysis and prototyping may be excessive
 The model is complex
 Risk assessment expertise is required
 Spiral may continue indefinitely
 Developers must be reassigned during non-development
phase activities
 May be hard to define objective, verifiable milestones
that indicate readiness to proceed through the next
iteration
When to use Spiral Model

 When creation of a prototype is appropriate

 When costs and risk evaluation is important
 For medium to high-risk projects
 Long-term project commitment unwise because
of potential changes to economic priorities
 Users are unsure of their needs
 Requirements are complex
 New product line
 Significant changes are expected (research and
exploration)
Housekeeping

 Individual Assignment:
 Post mortem + peer review
 Final presentations/demos
 July 26/28 - 25 minutes per
 ~8 minute presentation
 ~10 minute demo
 ~7 minutes questions
 Course evaluations this Thursday (4:05 pm)
 Rapid Application Model
(RAD)
 Requirements planning phase (a workshop
utilizing structured discussion of business
problems)
 User description phase – automated tools
capture information from users
 Construction phase – productivity tools, such as
code generators, screen generators, etc. inside
a time-box. (“Do until done”)
 Cutover phase -- installation of the system,
user acceptance testing and user training
Requirements Planning Phase

 Combines elements of the system planning

and systems analysis phases of the System
Development Life Cycle (SDLC).
 Users, managers, and IT staff members
discuss and agree on business needs, project
scope, constraints, and system requirements.
 It ends when the team agrees on the key
issues and obtains management
authorization to continue.
 User Design Phase
  Users interact with systems analysts and develop
models and prototypes that represent all system
processes, inputs, and outputs.
 Typically use a combination of Joint Application
Development (JAD) techniques and CASE tools to
translate user needs into working models. 
 A continuous interactive process that allows users to
understand, modify, and eventually approve a
working model of the system that meets their
needs.
Construction Phase

  Focuses on program and application

development task similar to the SDLC.
 However, users continue to participate and
can still suggest changes or improvements as
actual screens or reports are developed.
 Its tasks are programming and application
development, coding, unit-integration, and
system testing.
Cutover Phase

 Resembles the final tasks in the SDLC

implementation phase.
 Compared with traditional methods, the
entire process is compressed. As a result, the
new system is built, delivered, and placed in
operation much sooner.
 Tasks are data conversion, full-scale testing,
system changeover, user training.
RAD Strengths
 Reduced cycle time and improved productivity
with fewer people means lower costs
 Time-box approach mitigates cost and schedule
risk
 Customer involved throughout the complete
cycle minimizes risk of not achieving customer
satisfaction and business needs
 Focus moves from documentation to code
(WYSIWYG).
 Uses modeling concepts to capture information
about business, data, and processes.
RAD Weaknesses

 Accelerated development process must

give quick responses to the user
 Risk of never achieving closure
 Hard to use with legacy systems
 Requires a system that can be
modularized
 Developers and customers must be
committed to rapid-fire activities in an
abbreviated time frame.
When to use RAD

 Reasonably well-known requirements

 User involved throughout the life cycle
 Project can be time-boxed
 Functionality delivered in increments
 High performance not required
 Low technical risks
 System can be modularized
Incremental SDLC Model
 Construct a partial
implementation of a total
system
 Then slowly add increased
functionality
 The incremental model
prioritizes requirements of the
system and then implements
them in groups.
 Each subsequent release of the
system adds function to the
previous release, until all
designed functionality has
been implemented.
 Incremental Model Strengths

 Develop high-risk or major functions first

 Each release delivers an operational product
 Customer can respond to each build
 Uses “divide and conquer” breakdown of tasks
 Lowers initial delivery cost
 Initial product delivery is faster
 Customers get important functionality early
 Risk of changing requirements is reduced
Incremental Model
Weaknesses
 Requires good planning and design
 Requires early definition of a complete and
fully functional system to allow for the
definition of increments
 Well-defined module interfaces are
required (some will be developed long
before others)
 Total cost of the complete system is not
lower
When to use the Incremental
Model
 Risk, funding, schedule, program complexity, or
need for early realization of benefits.
 Most of the requirements are known up-front
but are expected to evolve over time
 A need to get basic functionality to the market
early
 On projects which have lengthy development
schedules
 On a project with new technology
Scrum:
Scrum advantages
 Agile scrum helps the company in saving time
and money.
 Scrum methodology enables projects where
the business requirements documentation is
hard to quantify to be successfully developed.
 Fast moving, cutting edge developments can
be quickly coded and tested using this
method, as a mistake can be easily rectified.
Scrum advantages
 It is a lightly controlled method which insists
on frequent updating of the progress in work
through regular meetings. Thus there is clear
visibility of the project development.
 Like any other agile methodology, this is also
iterative in nature. It requires continuous
feedback from the user.
 Due to short sprints and constant feedback, it
becomes easier to cope with the changes.
Scrum advantages
 Daily meetings make it possible to measure
individual productivity. This leads to the
improvement in the productivity of each of
the team members.
 Issues are identified well in advance through
the daily meetings and hence can be resolved
in speedily
 It is easier to deliver a quality product in a
scheduled time.
Scrum advantages
 Agile Scrum can work with any technology/
programming language but is particularly
useful for fast moving web 2.0 or new media
projects.
 The overhead cost in terms of process and
management is minimal thus leading to a
quicker, cheaper result.
Scrum disadvantages
 Agile Scrum is one of the leading causes of scope
creep because unless there is a definite end date,
the project management stakeholders will be
tempted to keep demanding new functionality is
delivered.
 If a task is not well defined, estimating project
costs and time will not be accurate. In such a
case, the task can be spread over several sprints.
 If the team members are not committed, the
project will either never complete or fail.
 Scrum disadvantages
 It is good for small, fast moving projects as it works
well only with small team.
 This methodology needs experienced team members
only. If the team consists of people who are novices,
the project cannot be completed in time.
 Scrum works well when the Scrum Master trusts the
team they are managing. If they practice too strict
control over the team members, it can be extremely
frustrating for them, leading to demoralisation and
the failure of the project.
Scrum disadvantages

 If any of the team members leave during a

development it can have a huge inverse effect
on the project development
 Project quality management is hard to
implement and quantify unless the test team
are able to conduct regression testing after
each sprint.