Chapter-3

Regular Languages and

Regular Expressions

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 Regular Languages
• A language defined by a regular expression
is a regular language.

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 Properties
of
Regular Languages

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Regular languages are closed under:

Union

Concatenation

Star operation

Reverse
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Namely, for regular languages L1 and L2 :

Union L1  L2

Concatenation L1L2
Regular
 Languages
Star operation L1
R
Reverse L1
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 We will prove
Regular languages are closed under:

Complement

Intersection

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Namely, for regular languages L1 and L2 :

Complement L1
Regular
Languages
Intersection L1  L2

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 Complement
Theorem: For regular language L
the complement L is regular

Proof: Take DFA that accepts L and make

• nonfinal states final
• final states nonfinal
Resulting DFA accepts L
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Example: L  L( a * b)
a a, b

q0 b q1 a,b q2

L  L(a *  a * b(a  b)(a  b)*)

a a, b

q0 b q1 a,b q2

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 Intersection
Theorem: For regular languages L1 and L2
the intersection L1  L2 is regular

Proof: Apply DeMorgan’s Law:

L1  L2  L1  L2

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 L1 , L2 regular

L1 , L2 regular

L1  L2 regular

L1  L2 regular

L1  L2 regular
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 Elementary Questions

about

Regular Languages

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 Membership Question
Question: Given regular language L
and string w
how can we check if w  L?

Answer: Take the DFA that accepts L

and check if w is accepted

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 DFA
w
w L

DFA
w
w L

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Question: Given regular language L
how can we check
if L is empty: ( L  ) ?

Answer: Take the DFA that accepts L

Check if there is a path from

the initial state to a final state
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 DFA

L

DFA

L

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Question: Given regular language L
how can we check
if L is finite?

Answer: Take the DFA that accepts L

Check if there is a walk with cycle

from the initial state to a final state
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 DFA

L is infinite

DFA

L is finite
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Question: Given regular languages L1 and L2
how can we check if L1  L2 ?

Answer: Find if ( L1  L2 )  ( L1  L2 )  

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 ( L1  L2 )  ( L1  L2 )  

L1  L2   and L1  L2  

L1 L2 L L2 L1 L1
2
L1  L2 L2  L1

L1  L2
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 ( L1  L2 )  ( L1  L2 )  

L1  L2   or L1  L2  

L1 L2 L2 L1

L1  L2 L2  L1

L1  L2
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 Non-regular languages

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 n n
{a b : n  0}
Non-regular languages
R
{ww : w {a, b}*}

Regular languages
a *b b*c  a
b  c ( a  b) *
etc...
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 How can we prove that a language L
is not regular?

Prove that there is no DFA that accepts L

Problem: this is not easy to prove

Solution: the Pumping Lemma !!!

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 The Pigeonhole Principle

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 4 pigeons

3 pigeonholes

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 A pigeonhole must
contain at least two pigeons

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 n pigeons

...........

m pigeonholes nm

...........

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 The Pigeonhole Principle

n pigeons
m pigeonholes
There is a pigeonhole
nm with at least 2 pigeons

...........

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 The Pigeonhole Principle

and

DFAs

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 DFA with 4 states

b
b b

a b b
q1 q2 q3 q4
a a
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In walks of strings: a no state
aa is repeated

aab

b
b b

a a b
q1 q2 q3 q4
a a
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In walks of strings: aabb a state
bbaa is repeated

abbabb
abbbabbabb...
b
b b

a a b
q1 q2 q3 q4
a a
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If the walk of string w has length | w |  4

then a state is repeated

b
b b

a a b
q1 q2 q3 q4
a a
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Pigeonhole principle for any DFA:

If in a walk of a string w
transitions  states of DFA
then a state is repeated

b
b b

a a b
q1 q2 q3 q4
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a
Formal Language and Automata theory a 35
 In other words for a string w:

a transitions are pigeons

q states are pigeonholes

b
b b

a a b
q1 q2 q3 q4
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a a 36
Formal Language and Automata theory
 In general:

A string w has length  number of states

A state q must be repeated in the walk w

walk of w
...... q ......
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 The Pumping Lemma

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 Take an infinite regular language L

DFA that accepts L

m
states

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 Take string w with w L

There is a walk with label w:

.........
walk w
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If string w has length | w |  m number
of states

then, from the pigeonhole principle:

a state q is repeated in the walk w

...... q ......
walk w
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Write w x y z

...... q ......

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Formal Language and Automata theory z 42
Observations: length | x y |  m number
of states
length | y | 1

...... q ......

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Formal Language and Automata theory z 43
Observation: The string x z is accepted

...... q ......

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Formal Language and Automata theory z 44
Observation: The string xyyz
is accepted

...... q ......

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Formal Language and Automata theory z 45
Observation: The string xyyyz
is accepted

...... q ......

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Formal Language and Automata theory z 46
 i
In General: The string xy z
is accepted i  0, 1, 2, ...

...... q ......

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Formal Language and Automata theory z 47
 The Pumping Lemma:
• Given a infinite regular language L
• there exists an integer m

• for any string w L with length | w |  m

• we can write w x y z

• with | x y |  m and | y |  1
i i  0, 1, 2, ...
• such that: xy z  L
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 Applications

of

the Pumping Lemma

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Theorem: The language L  {a b : n  0} n n

is not regular

Proof: Use the Pumping Lemma

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 n n
L  {a b : n  0}

Assume for contradiction

that L is a regular language

Since L is infinite
we can apply the Pumping Lemma

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 n n
L  {a b : n  0}

Let m be the integer in the Pumping Lemma

Pick a string w such that: w  L

length | w| m

m m
Example: pick wa b
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 m m
Write: a b xyz

From the Pumping Lemma

it must be that: length | x y |  m, | y | 1

m m
m m
Therefore: a b  a...aa...a...ab...b
x y z
k
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y  a , k 1
Formal Language and Automata theory 53
 m m k
We have: x y za b y  a , k 1

i
From the Pumping Lemma: xy z  L
i  0, 1, 2, ...

2
Thus: xy z  L
2 m k m
xy z  xyyz  a b  L
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 m k m
Therefore: a b L

n n
BUT: L  {a b : n  0}

m k m
a b L

CONTRADICTION!!!
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Therefore: Our assumption that L
is a regular language is not true

Conclusion: L is not a regular language

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 n n
Non-regular languages {a b : n  0}

Regular languages
a *b b*c  a
b  c ( a  b) *
etc...
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 Single Final State
for NFAs and DFAs

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 Observation

• Any Finite Automaton (NFA or DFA)

• can be converted to an equivalent NFA

• with a single final state

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 Example
a
NFA
a b

a Equivalent NFA

a b

b 

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 In General
NFA

Equivalent NFA

 Single
 final state
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 Extreme Case

NFA without final state

Add a final state

Without transitions

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 Some Properties of
Regular Languages

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 Properties
For regular languages L1 and L2
we will prove that:

Union: L1  L2

Are regular
Concatenation: L1L2
Languages

Star: L1 *
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 We Say:
Regular languages are closed under

Union: L1  L2

Concatenation: L1L2

Star: L1 *
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Regular language L1 Regular language L2

L M1   L1 L M 2   L2

NFA M1 NFA M2

Single final state Single final state

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 Example
M1
a
n
L1  {a b} b

M2
a
L2   ba b

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 Union
• NFA for L1  L2
M1

 

 M2 

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 Example
•NFA for n
L1  L2  {a b}  {ba}
n
L1  {a b}
a
b
 

 L2  {ba} 
b a
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 Concatenation

• NFA for L1L2

M1 M2
 

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 Example
•
n n
• NFA for L1L2  {a b}{ba}  {a bba}

n
L1  {a b}
a L2  {ba}
b  b a 

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 Star Operation
• NFA for L1 *

  L1 *
M1
 


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 Example

n
• NFA forL1*  {a b} *

n
L1  {a b}
a
 b 

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
Formal Language and Automata theory 73
 Regular Expressions

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Conti…

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 A Regular Expression can be recursively
defined as follows:
1. ε is a Regular Expression indicates the
language containing an empty string. (L (ε) =
{ε})
2. φ is a Regular Expression denoting an
empty language. (L (φ) = { })
3. x is a Regular Expression where L(x)={x}

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 Conti…
4. If X is a Regular Expression denoting the
language L(X) and Y is a Regular Expression
denoting the language L(Y), then
(a) X + Y is a Regular Expression
corresponding to the language L(X) U L(Y)
where L(X+Y) = L(X) U L(Y).
(b) X . Y is a Regular Expression
corresponding to the language L(X) . L(Y) where
L(X.Y)= L(X) . L(Y)
(c) R* is a Regular Expression corresponding
to the language L(R*) where L(R*) = (L(R))*
5. If we apply any of the rules several times
from 1 to 4, they are Regular Expressions.
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 Regular Expressions
• Regular expressions
• describe regular languages

• Example:
( a  b  c ) *

• describes the language

 a, bc *    , a, bc, aa, abc, bca,...
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 Recursive Definition
Primitive regular expressions: ,  , 

Given regular expressions r1 and r2

r1  r2
r1  r2
Are regular expressions
r1 *
 r1 
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 Examples

A regular expression:  a  b  c  * (c  )

Not a regular expression:  a  b 

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 Languages of Regular Expressions
•
•  r
L : language of regular expression r

• Example
L (a  b  c) *    , a, bc, aa, abc, bca,...

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 Definition

• For primitive regular expressions:

L    

L      

L a    a
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 Definition (continued)

• For regular expressions r1 and r2

L r1  r2   L r1   L r2 
•
L r1  r2   L r1  L r2 

L r1 *   L r1   *

L  r1    L r1 
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 Example
• Regular expression:  a  b  a *
L  a  b   a *  L  a  b   L a *
 L a  b  L a *
  L a   L b    L a   *
   a   b    a  *
  a, b   , a, aa, aaa,...
  a, aa, aaa,..., b, ba, baa,...
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 Example

• Regular expression r   a  b  *  a  bb 

L r    a, bb, aa, abb, ba, bbb,...

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 Example

• Regular expression r   aa  *  bb  * b

L r   {a b
2n 2m
b : n, m  0}

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 Example

• Regular expression r  (0  1) * 00 (0  1) *

L(r ) = { all strings with at least

two consecutive 0 }

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 Example

• Regular expression r  (1  01) * (0   )

L(r ) = { all strings without

two consecutive 0 }

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 More Examples on Regular Expressions
• Regular Expressions for:
A. The set of all string whose length is exactly two over the
alphabet ∑={a,b}.
Ans: RE=(a+b)(a+b)
B. The set of all string whose length is atleast two over the
alphabet ∑={a,b}.
Ans: RE=(a+b)(a+b) (a+b)*
C. The set of all string whose length is atmost two over the
alphabet ∑={a,b}.
Ans: RE=(a+b+↋)(a+b+↋)
D. The set of all string whose length is even over the alphabet
∑={a,b}.
Ans: RE=((a+b)(a+b))*
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Conti…
E. The set of all string whose length is odd over the
alphabet ∑={a,b}.
Ans: RE=((a+b)(a+b))* (a+b)
F. The set of all string whose length is divisible by three
over the alphabet ∑={a,b}.
Ans: RE=((a+b)(a+b) (a+b))*
And for 2mod3 is: RE=((a+b)(a+b) (a+b))*(a+b)(a+b)
G. The set of all string in which number of a is exactly two
over the alphabet ∑={a,b}.
Ans: RE=(b)*a (b)*a(b)*
H. The set of all string in which number of a is atleast two
over the alphabet ∑={a,b}.
Ans: RE=(b)*a (b)*a(a+b)*

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Conti…
I. The set of all string which starts with a over the
alphabet ∑={a,b}.
Ans: RE=a(a+b)*
J. The set of all string which ends with a over the alphabet
∑={a,b}.
Ans: RE=(a+b)*a
K. The set of all string which contains a at the middle over
the alphabet ∑={a,b}.
Ans: RE=(a+b)*a(a+b)*

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Conti…
L. The set of all string which starts and ends with
different symbols over the alphabet ∑={a,b}.
Ans: RE=a(a+b)*b+b(a+b)*a
M. The set of all string which starts and ends with
the same symbols over the alphabet ∑={a,b}.
Ans: RE=a(a+b)*a+b(a+b)*b+a+b+↋

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 Equivalent Regular Expressions

• Definition:

• Regular expressions
r1 r
and 2

L(r1 )  L(r2 )
• are equivalent if

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 Regular Expressions
and
Regular Languages

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 Theorem

Languages
Generated by
Regular Expressions
 Regular
Languages

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 Theorem - Part 1

Languages
Generated by  Regular
Languages
Regular Expressions

1. For any regular expression r

the language L(r ) is regular

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 Theorem - Part 2

Languages
Generated by  Regular
Languages
Regular Expressions

2. For any regular language L there is

a regular expression r with L( r )  L

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 Proof - Part 1

1. For any regular expression r

the language L(r ) is regular

Proof by induction on the size of r

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 Induction Basis
• Primitive Regular Expressions: ,  , 
NFAs

L( M1 )    L()

regular
L( M 2 )  {}  L( )
languages

L( M 3 )  {a}  L(a )
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 Inductive Hypothesis

• Assume
• for regular expressions r1 and 2r
• that
• L ( r1 ) and L( r2 ) are regular languages

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 Inductive Step
• We will prove:
L r1  r2 

L r1  r2 
Are regular
Languages
L r1 *

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L  r1  
Formal Language and Automata theory 103
 • By definition of regular expressions:

L r1  r2   L r1   L r2 

L r1  r2   L r1  L r2 

L r1 *   L r1   *

L  r1    L r1 
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 By inductive hypothesis we know:
L(r1 ) and L(r2 ) are regular languages

We also know:
Regular languages are closed under
union L r1   L r2 
concatenation L r1  L r2 
star  L r1   *
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• Therefore:

L r1  r2   L r1   L r2 

Are regular
L r1  r2   L r1  L r2 
languages

L r1 *   L r1   *
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• And trivially:

•
L((r1 )) is a regular language

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 Proof – Part 2

2. For any regular language L there is

a regular expression r with L( r )  L

Proof by construction of regular expression

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• Since L is regular take the
• NFA M that accepts it
•

L( M )  L

Single final state

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• From M construct the equivalent
• Generalized Transition Graph
– transition labels
– are regular expressions

Example:
M
a c a c
a, b ab
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 b b
• Another Example:
a
q0 q1 a, b q2
b

b b
a
q0 q1 a  b q2
b
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 b b
• Reducing the states:
a
q0 q1 a  b q2
b

bb * a b

q0 bb * (a  b) q2
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• Resulting Regular Expression:

bb * a b

q0 bb * (a  b) q2

r  (bb * a ) * bb * (a  b)b *

L(r )  L( M )  L
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 In General
• Removing states: e
d c
qi q qj
a b

ae * d ce * b
ce * d
qi qj
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ae * b
Formal Language and Automata theory 114
• Obtaining the final regular expression:
r1 r4
r3
q0 qf
r2

r  r1 * r2 (r4  r3r1 * r2 ) *

L(r )  L( M )  L
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 Regular Grammar

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