Drilling and Logging

Mining Geology 405
Drilling and Sampling

Joanna Hodge
Centre for Exploration
Targeting
Overview
• Drilling Techniques
• Drilling Equipment
• Downhole Surveying
• Sampling
Drilling and Sampling
• Important mineral exploration procedure
• Delineate subsurface conditions
• Expensive
• Number of techniques
• Tests ideas and theories developed during
prospect and target generation
• LOCATES AND DEFINES ECONOMIC
MINERALISATION
Drilling Techniques
• 3 main techniques used in Goldfields
– RAB (Rotary Air Blast)
– RC (Reverse Circulation)
– Diamond drilling
Rotary Air Blast (RAB)
• Cheapest
• Least penetrative (~100m)
• Geochemical sampling to base of regolith (ie
only penetrates weathered cover over fresh
rocks)
• Uses compressed air to break ground
• Air pumped down through drill rod
• Cuttings blown up hole between rod and hole
wall
• Single barrel technique
Advantages
• Cheap
• Fast
• Large sample volume
Disadvantages
• No fresh rock samples
• Limited depth
• No structural data
• Contamination
Types of drilling
equipment commonly
used in mineral
exploration (Marjoribanks,
1997)
Reverse Circulation (RC)
• Moderately priced
• Good penetration (to ~350m)
• Samples fresh rock
• Dual barrel technique
• High pressure fluid forced down outer pipe
and returns chips to surface up inner pipe
Schematic of
RC drill rig
Advantages
• Relatively cheap
• Quick
• Large sample
• Uncontaminated
Disadvantages
• Limited access
• No structural data
• Sample contamination below water table
Diamond Drilling
• Expensive
• Greatest penetration
• Whole rock samples
Types of drilling
equipment commonly
used in mineral
exploration (Marjoribanks,
1997)
Advantages
• Maximum geological information
• Uncontaminated
• High quality sampling
Disadvantages
• Expensive
• Slow
• Small sample size
• Extensive site preparation and water
supply required
Appropriate Drilling Methods
• RAB
– Early exploration
– First pass and infill drilling
• RC
– Intermediate exploration
– Delineate ore body
– Grade control
• Diamond
– Late stage
– Structural controls
Drilling
Drill Type Data Advantages Disadvantages
Auger Geochemical sampling, top Portable, usually Poor penetration
few metres of Landcruiser mounted,
unconsolidated material uncontaminated sample,
Quick, cheap
Rotary Air Blast (RAB) Geochemical sampling to Large sample volume. Won’t penetrate hard rock.
base of regolith Quick and cheap. Rock Sample contamination.
chips Limited depth. No structural
data
Air Core Geochemical sampling into Minimal contamination. Small sample size
bedrock Quick and cheap. Some
core recovery
Reverse Circulation Geochemical sampling in Large sample. Large heavy rig. No

hard and soft rocks at Uncontaminated. Rock chip structural data. Possible
greater than 200m depth returns. Relatively quick sample contamination
and cheap below water table
Diamond High quality sampling to Maximum geological Site preparation and water
greater than 1000km. information. supply required. Small
Geological understanding Uncontaminated high sample size. Slow.
quality sample. Accurate Expensive
hole positioning
Marjoribanks, 1997
Directional control
• Important to survey RC and Diamond holes to ascertain
exact position of underground features
• Rod strings can deviate significantly and do not travel
straight.
• Inaccurately surveyed holes can lead to large
discrepancies in the actual location of an orebody
• Surveying is undertaken down the drillhole by a single-
shot camera to record dip and azimuth every 30-50m
during drilling, or after drilling is completed by a gyro
• If surveying indicates that a drillhole is deviating
significantly off course, the driller can take remedial
action.
Sampling & Sampling Theory
• “Good sampling is like religion – everyone
believes in it, but few practice it.”
• Sampling results are estimates made
within bounds of precision (repeatability)
and accuracy (lack of bias)
A Sample
• Representative part or single item from larger
whole
• Taken for purpose of inspection
• Evidence of quality
• Part of statistical population whose properties
are studied to gain information about the whole
• By definition have two elements
– Typicality
– Smallness
Problems, Bias
• Variable geological environments
• Erratic metal distribution
• High unit value of precious metals exacerbates
error
• Low cut-off grades requires greater care when
sampling
• Sampling provides basic data for subsequent
resource and reserve calculations
• Grade control errors can be costly
Objectives
• Determine, minimise source of error
• Determine optimum sample size and
density/spacing for
• In situ mineralisation (core, channel samples)
• Broken ore (drill chips, ROM material, crushed
material)
Errors
• Core sample split unevenly or divided
improperly
• Density differences in chip samples
• Hardness differences
• Where biased or unrepresentative sample data
can be recognised, the source of the error can
be eliminated
• Geological bias can be taken into account by
separating out sub-populations eg. zoned ore
bodies, leaching or secondary enrichment
• Contamination should be avoided by good
sampling methodology
• Human factors?
– Different samplers or procedures
– Fraud
Errors
Overall Error Estimation
• OE = AE+Σ(FE+GSE+DE+EE+PE)
OE = overall estimation error

AE = analytical error (lab precision)
FE = fundamental error (in situ variability)
GSE = grouping & segregation error (broken ore, drill
chips)
DE = delimitation error (sample site selection)
EE = extraction error (sample selection)
PE = preparation error (lab prep)
=Σ(contamination error + sample loss +
chemical/physical alteration + human mistakes + fraud)
Coefficient of Variability
• The higher the CoV, the more difficult ore
grade estimation is
• 1.0 – 1.5 good precision
• 1.5 – 2.0 fair precision
• > 2.5 high imprecision – treat with caution
Ore Deposit Classification
• Type A: Simple geometry, low CoV
– Simple geometry, simple grade distribution,
eg coal, iron, bauxite, nickel laterite
– Simple geometry, complex grade distribution,
eg, disseminated copper, gold stockworks,
Witwatersrand gold
• Type B: Complex geometry, simple
grade distribution, low CoV
– Base metal deposits
• Type C: Complex geometry, complex
grade distribution, high CoV
– Lode gold deposits – Yilgarn!
Sampling procedures must be tailored to the

style of mineralisation
Sample size
• Required sample size depends on:
– In situ concentration of ore mineral
– In situ grain size of ore mineral
– Other factors that apply specifically to broken
or crushed material
Rules of Thumb
• Sample size limited by physical and
economic constraints
• Bigger is better
• If samples are poor, then get lots of
samples
Why Grade Control
• How much ore is going to the waste
dump?
• How much waste is going through the
mill?
• Important to eliminate dilution
• Even more important not to throw away
your ore!
Grade Control
• Carried out routinely at all mine sites to evaluate ore
distribution in the pit, or underground
• Variety of methods used – in open pits commonly RC
drilling. Blast holes also logged and assayed.
• Drilling carried out on fixed pattern to a set depth, unlike
exploration drilling
• Depth determined by size of bench being mined; usually
covers two benches at a time.
• Samples usually only analysed for limited element suite
eg. Au only in gold mine, however this is a site-specific
decision.
Next Week
• Geological logging
• Geotechnical logging
• Ore deposit models
• Summary and review

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Mining Geology 405

Drilling and Sampling

Reverse Circulation Geochemical sampling in Large sample. Large heavy rig. No

OE = overall estimation error

Sampling procedures must be tailored to the

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