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Using Geophysics To Characterize The Subsurface: The Principles

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

70 views152 pages

Using Geophysics To Characterize The Subsurface: The Principles

Uploaded by

Masahiro Galang Susanto

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An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial

Using Geophysics to Characterize

the Subsurface: The Principles

(“Seeing through a
dark glass dimly.”)

© John F. Hermance
September 05, 2002
(Information for the Presenter)
Conventions for Prompting the Viewer
This is the “toggle” symbol to prompt presenter to
return to previous slide for quick comparisons with
the current slide.

The following “traffic light” signals appear in

lower right corner of the slide to prompt
presenter accordingly.
Move forward quickly, probably the next slide
has the essential information (e.g. labels).
Move forward after a slight pause to assess
whether content deserves brief comment.
This is a pausing point at which motivating
comments can be made, or the contents
thoroughly discussed.
An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial

Using Geophysics to Characterize

the Subsurface: The Principles

(“Seeing through a © John F. Hermance

dark glass dimly.”) September 05, 2002
An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial

Using Geophysics to Characterize

the Subsurface: The Principles

(“Seeing through a © John F. Hermance

dark glass dimly.”) September 05, 2002
An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial

(“Seeing through a © John F. Hermance

dark glass dimly.”) September 05, 2002
We determine subsurface conditions by remotely sensing physical
properties of materials in situ.
There are basically four modes (or “phases”) used in
seismic and radar investigations.
a) Vertical reflection
b) Wide angle reflection
c) Critical refraction
d) Direct wave
The seismic
method
records these
signals and
analyses their
relationship.
To do so, we need to
precisely determine
their arrival times, or
“traveltimes”.
To do so, we need to
precisely determine
their arrival times, or
“traveltimes”.
To do so, we need to
precisely determine
their arrival times, or
“traveltimes”.
These relative traveltimes are
the basis for interpreting
seismic data.
An example of 4 traces recorded at adjacent position offsets.

“Picking” traveltimes (or “first

breaks”) is sometimes a
subjective art form.
An example of 4 traces recorded at adjacent position offsets.

How do these look ?

An example of 4 traces recorded at adjacent position offsets.

The traveltime of a phase corresponds to the relative time

between its “first break” and the launch of the signal.
An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial

Seismic Sources !!

The transmitted chirp is cross-correlated

with the composite signal received at the
geophones to detect specific reflections,
refractions, etc.
Size varies:
• One person vibrators or compactors;
• Articulated earth movers.

From IMC web page.

© John F. Hermance
September 05, 2002
An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial
A geophysics class in the field (Anne Sheehan; U. Colorado)

Vibroseis Trucks in the Field (Anne Sheehan; U. Colorado)

Seismic Sources !!

Note the subtle difference

in scale.

© John F. Hermance
(The “Brown Way”.) September 05, 2002
An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial
Vibroseis platform jacked down (Anne Sheehan; U. Colorado)

(U British Columbia:
(University of Bergen.) Lithoprobe Project.)

(Network for Earthquake Engineering © John F. Hermance

September 05, 2002
Simulation; U Texas.)
An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial
Vibrating type sources. (Photos from Terraplus.)

Jeff Sullivan; ScM, Brown U.

(w/ Rabi Bohidar, PhD.)
Consider a two layered earth model.
Principal instruments.
Add an operator.
A “Shot”.
A sound pulse is generated.
And recorded.
And . . .
. . . a reflection is generated.
And recorded.
To summarize: An impulsive source (a sledge hammer blow to a steel
plate) generates a sound wave that travels through the subsurface. . . .
. . . If one knows the distance (x) between the “shot” and the sensor, and
the time (T) it takes the wave to travel this distance, . . .
. . . one can determine the velocity (V) of the material,

V=x/T

and tell, for example, . . .

. . . whether the medium is
bedrock,
dry soil, or
saturated soil,
among other possibilities.
In this way, we determine the material properties of the subsurface.
Alternatively, if one knows the velocity (V) of the material and the
time (T) it takes the wave to get to a sensor, then rearranging

V=x/T

...
. . . to the form

x=V/T,

one can determine the distance (x) from the shot to the sensor.
While not particularly useful for the case above, . . .
. . . the latter concept is critical for determining the
nature of structures at depth below the surface.
For example, when there are layers at depth.
Determining
Determining the
the depth
depth when
when V V and
and TT are
are known
known is
is the
the
principle
principle of
of the
the reflection
reflection method.
method.
Theory: Behavior of Waves in the Subsurface

In order to understand how to extract more detailed

subsurface information from geophysical measurements at the
surface, we first analyze the behavior of waves (seismic or
radar) in the subsurface.
An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial

© John F. Hermance
September 05, 2002 This is the field situation to be considered.
Please review the animation sequence for
Reflected Phases at this time.

Please minimize this application, the animation

sequence is found on the index page.

Maximize this application when ready to continue.

Essential points for discussion.

1) The relative difference in arrival times of the ‘direct’ and

‘reflected’ phases as offset increases.
Essential points for discussion.

1) The relative difference in arrival times of the ‘direct’ and

‘reflected’ phases as offset increases.

2) The synchrony of the two phases along the lower

interface.
Essential points for discussion.

1) The relative difference in arrival times of the ‘direct’ and

‘reflected’ phases as offset increases.

2) The synchrony of the two phases along the lower

interface.

3) The difference in the ‘apparent’ velocity of the two

phases along the surface
a) The direct (primary) wave travels @ v1.
b) The reflected wave @ v1 / sin i
(where i is the incident angle).
Essential points for discussion.

1) The relative difference in arrival times of the ‘direct’ and

‘reflected’ phases as offset increases.

2) The synchrony of the two phases along the lower

interface.

3) The difference in the ‘apparent’ velocity of the two

phases along the surface
a) The direct (primary) wave travels @ v1.
b) The reflected wave @ v1 / sin i
(where i is the incident angle).
An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial

Traveltime Relations for Direct and

Reflected Phases

© John F. Hermance
September 05, 2002 The field situation showing cutaway.
An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial

© John F. Hermance
September 05, 2002 The field situation with geophone.
An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial

How can we use the ‘reflected’ phase to

determine the depth to the respective
horizon (or layer) ?

© John F. Hermance
September 05, 2002 Traveltime for a reflection.
If we “know” x and v, we can determine d, the
depth to the reflector.
An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial

© John F. Hermance
September 05, 2002 Direct and reflected ray paths with traveltimes.
Please review tutorial on Analyzing Direct and
Reflected Phases at this time.

Please minimize this application, the tutorial is

found on the index page.

Maximize this application when ready to continue.

An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial

Next, consider the ‘refracted’ phase.

© John F. Hermance
September 05, 2002 Snell’s Law for Reflection and Refraction.
Refraction at the Critical Angle.
Please review the animation sequence for
Refracted Phases at this time.

Please minimize this application, the animation

sequence is found on the index page.

Maximize this application when ready to continue.

Essential points for discussion.

1) The relative difference in arrival times of the ‘direct’,

‘reflected’ & ‘refracted’ phases as offset increases.
Essential points for discussion.

1) The relative difference in arrival times of the ‘direct’,

‘reflected’ & ‘refracted’ phases as offset increases.

2) The synchrony of the direct and reflected phases along

the lower interface.
Essential points for discussion.

1) The relative difference in arrival times of the ‘direct’,

‘reflected’ & ‘refracted’ phases as offset increases.

2) The synchrony of the direct and reflected phases along

the lower interface.

3) The refracted wavefront is tangential to the reflected

wavefront at the critical angle.
Essential points for discussion.

1) The relative difference in arrival times of the ‘direct’,

‘reflected’ & ‘refracted’ phases as offset increases.

2) The synchrony of the direct and reflected phases along

the lower interface.

3) The refracted wavefront is tangential to the reflected

wavefront at the critical angle.

4) The difference in the ‘apparent’ velocity of the

three
phases along the surface
a) The direct (primary) wave travels @ v1.
b) The reflected wave @ v1 / sin i
(where i is the incident angle).
c) The refracted wave @ v = v / sin 
Essential points for discussion.

1) The relative difference in arrival times of the ‘direct’,

‘reflected’ & ‘refracted’ phases as offset increases.

2) The synchrony of the direct and reflected phases along

the lower interface.

3) The refracted wavefront is tangential to the reflected

wavefront at the critical angle.

4) The difference in the ‘apparent’ velocity of the

three
phases along the surface
a) The direct (primary) wave travels @ v1.
b) The reflected wave @ v1 / sin i
(where i is the incident angle).
c) The refracted wave @ v = v / sin 
Refraction at the Critical Angle.
In summary: A seismic (or radar) signal generates a number
of modes.
An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial

How can we use the ‘refracted’ phase

to determine structure in the earth ?

© John F. Hermance
September 05, 2002 Recall the direct and reflected ray paths.
An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial

© John F. Hermance
September 05, 2002 The direct and refracted ray paths.
An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial

© John F. Hermance
September 05, 2002
Composite of direct, reflected and refracted
ray paths.
An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial

Set of synthetic
seismograms.

Details on “Picking” and Interpreting

Seismic Data

Set of synthetic
seismograms.
(Direct phase.)

(Direct wave
“picks” are best in
here.)

Analysis of direct
ground wave.

Direct ground
wave traveltime
should (?) go
through origin.

Set of synthetic
seismograms.
(Reflected phase.)

Analyzing reflected phases: An alternative

expression for the traveltime.

Analyzing reflected phases: An alternative

expression for the traveltime.

Analyzing reflected phases: An alternative

expression for the traveltime.

The slope m, and the intercept b, provide the

essential parameters for interpretation.
© John F. Hermance
September 05, 2002
An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial

Analysis of
reflected phase
using T2 - X2
method.

Set of synthetic
seismograms.
(Refracted phase.)

Analysis of critically
refracted phase.

Traveltime relations.
© John F. Hermance
September 05, 2002
Actual
seismogram
showing various
phases.
© John F. Hermance
September 05, 2002
Picking
“first breaks”
(Continue).
© John F. Hermance
September 05, 2002
To get truly good “first break” picks, you need to
a) Turn up the gain;
b) Adjust “events” to common amplitude.
(This is because low amplitude picks tend to
be biased to later times.)

Picking
“first breaks”
(Continue).
© John F. Hermance
September 05, 2002
An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial

Using the refraction method for more

complicated field situations.

Consider “dipping” interfaces.

We employ “reversed” refraction profiling.

© John F. Hermance
September 05, 2002
Procedure: Step 1; The “Forward” Shot.
Procedure: Step 2; The “Reverse” Shot.
An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial

We use the theoretical traveltime of the respective

refracted phases.

© John F. Hermance
September 1, 2002
The Theoretical Traveltime for a Refracted Phase
on a Dipping Interface.
An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial

© John F. Hermance
September 05, 2002
Summary of apparent velocities and intercept
times for a dipping interface.
An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial

How do we gather and interpret field data ?

© John F. Hermance
September 05, 2002
Procedure: Step 1; The “Forward” Shot.
Step 1: Shoot in Forward Direction.
Procedure: Step 2; The “Reverse” Shot.
Step 2: Shoot in Reverse Direction.
Step 3: Inspect Data.
Step 4: Determine Forward Velocity.
Step 5: Determine Reverse Velocity.
Step 6: Determine Forward Intercept.
Step 7: Determine Reverse Intercept.
Step 7: Determine Reverse Intercept.

ItIt is
is critical
critical to
to remember
remember that
that the
the
“reciprocal
“reciprocal traveltimes”
traveltimes” are
are identical.
identical.
An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial

© John F. Hermance
September 05, 2002 Traveltime relations: Dipping refractor.
An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial

Some Examples.

© John F. Hermance
September 05, 2002
An actual interpretation of
dipping plane interfaces
(J. Sullivan; Seekonk, MA).
Characteristics of Field Area 1: Vertical GPR Time Section

Ground Penetrating Radar Image from Field Site

Freq:100 MHz
Tx-Rx Offset: 2 m
An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial

Example of a refined interpretation using a

combination of seismic refraction methods
© John F. Hermance
September 05, 2002
and ground penetrating radar.
Subsurface structure above bedrock at field site.

[Seismic interpretation from Jeff

Composite interpretation using seismic refraction,
Sullivan (personal communication.).]
DC resistivity, EM, GPR and gravity.
An Environmental Geophysics & Hydrology Tutorial

September 05, 2002
In summary, a seismic interpretation depends on properly
identifying and time-picking appropriate phases.
Field Procedure for Seismic Refraction Surveys
(A checklist for a "typical" seismic refraction sounding.)