Introduction

Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with

wavelengths ranging from about one meter to one millimeter; with
frequencies between 300 MHz (1 m) and 300 GHz (1 mm).

A more common definition in radio engineering is the range

between 1 and 100 GHz (wavelengths between 0.3 m and 3 mm).
In all cases, microwaves include the entire SHF band (3 to 30
GHz, or 10 to 1 cm) at minimum.
Frequencies in the microwave range are often referred to by their
IEEE radar band designations: S, C, X, Ku, K, or Ka band or by similar
NATO or EU designations.

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prefix micro-in microwave is not meant to suggest a wavelength in
the micrometer range.
Rather, it indicates that microwaves are "small" (having shorter
wavelengths), compared to the radio waves used prior to microwave
technology.
The boundaries between far infrared, terahertz radiation,
microwaves, and ultra-high-frequency radio waves are fairly arbitrary
and are used variously between different fields of study.
Microwaves travel by line-of-sight; unlike lower frequency radio
waves they do not diffract around hills, follow the earth's surface as
ground waves, or reflect from the ionosphere.
so terrestrial microwave communication links are limited by the
visual horizon to about 40 miles

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 Microwave spectrum
Class Frequency Wavelength Energy
300 EHz 1 pm 1.24 MeV
γ Gamma rays

30 EHz 10 pm 124 keV

HX Hard X-rays
Ionizing 3 EHz 100 pm 12.4 keV
radiation
SX Soft X-rays 300 PHz 1 nm 1.24 keV
30 PHz 10 nm 124 eV
Extreme
EUV
ultraviolet
3 PHz 100 nm 12.4 eV
Near
NUV ultraviolet
Visible 300 THz 1 μm 1.24 eV
NIR Near infrared
30 THz 10 μm 124 meV
MIR Mid infrared
3 THz 100 μm 12.4 meV
FIR Far infrared
300 GHz 1 mm 1.24 meV
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 Extremely high
EHF
frequency
30 GHz 1 cm 124 μeV

Super high
SHF 3 GHz 1 dm 12.4 μeV
frequency
Ultra high
UHF 300 MHz 1m 1.24 μeV
Micro-
waves frequency
Very high
and VHF 30 MHz 10 m 124 neV
frequency
High
radio HF 3 MHz 100 m 12.4 neV
frequency
wav
es Medium
MF 300 kHz 1km 1.24 neV
frequency
Low
LF 30 kHz 10 km 124 peV
frequency
Very low 3 kHz 100 km 12.4 peV
VLF
frequency

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 Ultra low
ULF
300 Hz 1000 km 1.24 peV
frequency

Super low
SLF
30 Hz 10000 km 124 feV
frequency

Extremely
ELF low 100000
3 Hz 12.4 feV
frequency km

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Microwave spectrum

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 MICROWAVE BANDS
Microwave frequency bands

Designation Frequency range Wavelength range

L band 1 to 2 GHz 15 cm to 30 cm

S band 2 to 4 GHz 7.5 cm to 15 cm

C band 4 to 8 GHz 3.75 cm to 7.5 cm

X band 8 to 12 GHz 25 mm to 37.5 mm

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Ku band 12 to 18 GHz 16.7 mm to 25 mm

K band 18 to 26.5 GHz 11.3 mm to 16.7 mm

Ka band 26.5 to 40 GHz 5.0 mm to 11.3 mm

Q band 33 to 50 GHz 6.0 mm to 9.0 mm

U band 40 to 60 GHz 5.0 mm to 7.5 mm

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V band 50 to 75 GHz 4.0 mm to 6.0 mm

W band 75 to 110 GHz 2.7 mm to 4.0 mm

F band 90 to 140 GHz 2.1 mm to 3.3 mm

D band 110 to 170 GHz 1.8 mm to 2.7 mm

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 ADVANTAGES OF MICROWAVES

Large Bandwidth: The Bandwidth of Microwaves is larger than

the common low frequency radio waves. Thus more information
can be transmitted using Microwaves. It is very good advantage,
because of this, Microwaves are used for Point to Point
Communications.

Better Directivity: At Microwave Frequencies, there are better

directive properties. This is due to the relation that As Frequency
Increases, Wavelength decreases and as Wavelength decreases
Directivity Increases and Beam width decreases. So it is easier to
design and fabricate high gain antenna in Microwaves

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Small Size Antenna: Microwaves allows to decrease the
size of antenna. The antenna size can be smaller as the size
of antenna is inversely proportional to the transmitted
frequency. Thus in Microwaves, we have waves of much
higher frequencies and hence the higher the frequency, the
smaller the size of antenna.
Low Power Consumption: The power required to transmit
a high frequency signal is lesser than the power required in
transmission of low frequency signals. As Microwaves have
high frequency thus requires very less power.
Effect Of Fading: The effect of fading is minimized by using
Line Of Sight propagation technique at Microwave
Frequencies. While at low frequency signals, the layers
around the earth causes fading of the signal

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 APPLICATIONS OF MICROWAVES

There are many Industrial, Scientific, Medical and Domestic

Applications of Microwaves. The great example of Application of
Microwaves is 'Microwave Oven' which we uses in our daily life.

Following are the other main application areas of Microwaves:

 Communication
 Remote Sensing
 Heating
 Medical Science

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Communication: Microwave is used in broadcasting and
telecommunication transmissions.
As described above, they have shorter wavelengths and allows
to use smaller antennas. The cellular networks like GSM, also
uses
Microwave frequencies of range 1.8 to 1.9 GHz for
communication. Microwaves are also used for transmitting and
receiving a signal from earth to satellite and from satellite to
earth.

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Remote Sensing: Most of you may be familiar with this Application.
The most common application of Microwave is its use in RADAR and
SONAR.
RADAR is used to illuminate an object by using a transmitter and
receiver to detect its position and velocity. Radiometry is also one of
the Remote Sensing Applications.

Heating: You all are familiar with this application. We uses

Microwave Oven to bake and cook food. It is very convenient
electronic machine which performs the heating task very cleanly
and in a very less time.

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Medical Science: Microwave's heating properties are also used in
Medical Science. Microwave also have Medical Applications such as
it is used in diagnosis and various therapies. There are also some
other applications of heating property of microwave such as
Drying, Precooking and Moisture Leveling.

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 General Considerations: Units in RF Design

• This relationship between Power and Voltage only

holds when the input and output impedance are
equal

An amplifier senses a sinusoidal signal and delivers a power of 0 dBm to a load

resistance of 50 Ω. Determine the peak-to-peak voltage swing across the load.

Solution:

where RL= 50 Ω thus,

 Example of Units in RF
A GSM receiver senses a narrowband (modulated) signal having a level of -100
dBm. If the front-end amplifier provides a voltage gain of 15 dB, calculate the
peak-to-peak voltage swing at the output of the amplifier.

Solution:

Since the amplifier output voltage swing is of interest, we first convert the received signal
level to voltage. From the previous example, we note that -100 dBm is 100 dB below 632
mVpp. Also, 100 dB for voltage quantities is equivalent to 105. Thus, -100 dBm is equivalent to
6.32 μVpp. This input level is amplified by 15 dB (≈ 5.62), resulting in an output swing of 35.5
μVpp.

 Output voltage of the amplifier is of interest in this example

 Scattering Parameters

 S-Parameter: Use power quantities instead of voltage or current

 The difference between the incident power (the power that would be delivered to a
matched load) and the reflected power represents the power delivered to the circuit.
S11 and S12
 S11 is the ratio of the reflected and
incident waves at the input port when
the reflection from RL is zero.
 Represents the accuracy of the input
matching

 S12 is the ratio of the reflected wave at

the input port to the incident wave into
the output port when the input is
matched
 Characterizes the reverse isolation
S21 and S22
 S21 is the ratio of the wave incident
on the load to that going to the
input when the reflection from RL is
zero
 Represents the gain of the circuit

 S22 is the ratio of reflected and

incident waves at the output when
the reflection from Rs is zero
 Represents the accuracy of the
output matching
 Scattering Parameters: A few remarks

 S-parameters generally have frequency-dependent complex values

 We often express S-parameters in units of dB

 The condition V2+=0 does not mean output port of the circuit must be
conjugate-matched to RL.
 Input Reflection Coefficient
In modern RF design, S11 is the most commonly-used S parameter as it quantifies the
accuracy of impedance matching at the input of receivers.

 Called the “input reflection coefficient” and denoted by Gin, this quantity can
also be considered to be S11 if we remove the condition V2+ = 0
 Conventional Tubes

• Conventional Device tubes cannot be used for

frequencies above 100MHz
• 1. Interelectrode capacitance
• 2. Lead Inductance effect
• 3. Transit time effect
• 4. Gain Bandwidth limitation
• 5. Effect of RF losses (Conductance, dielectric)
• 6. Effect due to radiation losses
• Efficient Microwave tubes usually operate on
the theory of electron velocity modulation
concept
• The electron transit time is used in the
conversion of dc power to RF power
 Linear Beam O tubes

• The paramount O – type tube is the two cavity klystron followed by the reflex
klystron.

• Slow wave structures are also O-type but have non-resonant periodic
structures for electron interactions.
• Twystron is a hybrid amplifier which uses a combination of klystron and Slow
wave structures.

s
 KLYSTRON

• There are two basic configurations of klystron

tubes
• 1. Reflex Klystron used as a low-power Microwave
oscillator
• 2. Multi cavity klystron used as low-power
microwave amplifier
REFLEX KLYSTRON
REFLEX KLYSTRON
 REFLEX KLYSTRON

• Single Re-entrant cavity as a resonator.

• The electron beam emitted from the cathode is
accelerated by the grid and passes through the
cavity anode to the repeller space between the
cavity anode and the repeller electrode .

• The feedback required to maintain the oscillations

within the cavity is obtained by reversing electron
beam emitted from the cathode towards repeller
electrode and sending it back through the cavity.
• The electrons in the beam are velocity modulated
before the beam passes through the cavity the
second time and give up the energy to the cavity
to maintain oscillations.

• This type of a Klystron is called a Reflex Klystron

because of the reflex action of the electron beam.
 REENTRANT CAVITY

• Therefore the reentrant cavities are designed for

use in klystron and microwave triodes
• A reentrant cavity is one in which the metallic
boundaries extend into the interior of the cavity

• Inductance decreased
• Reduced resistance losses

• Prevents radiation losses

 Mechanism of Oscillation

• It is assumed that the oscillations are set up in the

tube initially due to noise or switching transients
and the oscillations are sustained by device
operation.
• The electrons passing through the cavity gap d
experience this RF field and are velocity
modulated.
 Applegate diagram
• The electrons B which encountered the positive
half cycle of the RF field in the cavity gap d will be
accelerated, A which encountered zero RF field
will pass with unchanged original velocity, and c
which encountered the negative half cycle will be
retarded on entering the repeller space.
• All these velocity modulated electrons will be
repelled back to the cavity by the repeller due to
the negative potential.
• The repeller distance L and the voltages can be
adjusted to receive all the electrons at a same
time on the positive peak of the cavity RF velocity
cycle.
• Thus the velocity modulated electrons are
bunched together and lose their kinetic energy
when they encounter the positive cycle of the
cavity RF field.
• Bunches occur once per cycle centered around
the reference electron and these bunches
transfer maximum energy to the gap to get
sustained oscillations.
• For oscillations to be sustained, the time taken by
the electrons to travel into the repeller space and
back to the gap (transit time) must have an
optimum value.
 Mode of Oscillation
• The electrons should return after 1¾, 2 ¾ or 3 ¾ cycles –
most optimum departure time.
• If T is the time period at the resonant frequency, to is
the time taken by the reference electron to travel in the
repeller space between entering the repeller space and
returning to the cavity at positive peak voltage on
formation of the bunch
Then, to = (n + ¾)T = NT
Where N = n + ¾, n = 0,1,2,3…….
N – mode of oscillation.
• The mode of oscillation is named as N = ¾, 1 ¾ 2
¾ etc for modes n = 0,1,2……resp.
Multicavity Klystron
Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier
 Principle

• Velocity modulated tube

• High velocity electron beam is generated by
an electron gun and sent down along a gas
tube through an input cavity (BUNCHER), drift
space (FIELD FREE) and an output cavity
(CATCHER) to a collector electrode anode.
• The anode is kept positive to receive the
electrons, while the output is taken from the
tube via resonant cavities with the aid of
coupling loops
• Two grids of the buncher cavity are separated
by a small gap A while the two grids of the
catcher cavity are separated by a small gap B.
 OPERATION

• The input buncher cavity is exited by the RF

signal, (the signal to be amplified) which will
produce an alternating voltage of signal
frequency across the gap A.
• This voltage generated at the gap A is
responsible to produce bunching of electrons or
velocity modulation of the electron beam.
Applegate Diagram
 Gunn Diode

• Invented by J.B Gunn

Gunn Effect:
• Above some critical voltage (Corresponding to
Electric field of 2k-4k V/cm) the current passing
through n-type GaAs becomes a periodic
fluctuating function of time.
• Frequency of oscillation is determined mainly
by the specimen, not by the external circuit.
• Period of oscillation is inversely proportional to
the specimen length and is equal to the transit
time of electrons between the electrodes
• The current waveform was produced by
applying a voltage pulse of 16V and 10ns
duration to an n-type GaAs of 2.5 x 10-3 cm
length. The oscillation frequency was 4.5Ghz
 RWH Theory
• Explanation for Gunn Effect:
Ridley – Watkins – Hilsum (RWH) Theory

• Two concepts related with RWH Theory.

– Differential negative resistance
– Two valley model
 Differential negative resistance
• Fundamental concept of RWH Theory.
• Developed in bulk solid state III-V compound
when a voltage is applied
• Differential negative resistance make the
sample electrically unstable.
Two valley
model
theory
• Data for two valleys in GaAs
Electron transfer mechanism
 Gunn Oscillation Mode
 Condition for successful domain drift:
Transit time (L/vs) > Electric relaxation time

 Frequency of oscillation = vdom/Leff.

 Gunn diode with a resistive circuit -> Voltage change across

diode is constant-> Period of oscillation is the time required
for the domain to drift from the cathode to anode. Not
suitable for microwave applications because of low
efficiency.
 Gunn diode with a resonant circuit has high efficiency.
• There are three domain modes for Gunn
oscillation modes.
1. Transit time domain mode, (Gunn mode)
2. Delayed domain mode

– Here domain is collected while

– New domain cannot form until E rises above
threshold again.
–,
– Also called inhibited mode.
– Efficiency: 20%
3. Quenched domain mode:

– If bias field drops below Es, domain collapses

before it reaches anode.
– When the bias field swings above Eth, a new
domain starts and process repeats.
– Frequency of oscillation is determined by resonant
circuit.
– Efficiency : 13%
• Limited Space charge Accumulation Mode
(LSA)

Most Important mode for Gunn oscillator.

Domain is not allowed to form.
Efficiency : 20%
 Gunn Characteristics
• Power: 1W (Between 4HHz and 16GHz)
• Gain Bandwidth product : >10dB
• Average gain : 1 – 12 dB
• Noise figure : 15 dB
 Applications of Gunn Diode
• In radar transmitters
• Air traffic control (ATC) and Industrial
Telemetry
• Broadband linear amplifier
• Fast combinational and sequential logic circuit
• Low and medium power oscillators in
microwave receivers
• As pump sources
 CIRCUALTORS AND ISOLATORS
 Both microwave circulators and isolators are non reciprocal
transmission devices that use the property of Faraday rotation in
the ferrite material. A non reciprocal phase shifter consists of
thin slab of ferrite placed in a rectangular waveguide at a point
where the dc magnetic field of the incident wave mode is
circularly polarized. When a piece of ferrite is affected by a dc
magnetic field the ferrite exhibits Faraday rotation. It does so
because the ferrite is nonlinear material and its permeability is
an asymmetric tensor.

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 MICROWAVE CIRCULATORS
 A microwave circulator is a multiport waveguide junction in
which the wave can flow only from the nth port to the (n + I)th
port in one direction Although there is no restriction on the
number of ports, the four-port microwave circulator is the most
common. One type of four-port microwave circulator is a
combination of two 3-dB side hole directional couplers and a
rectangular waveguide with two non reciprocal phase shifters.

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MICROWAVE CIRCULATORS

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 ISOLATOR
 An isolator is a nonreciprocal transmission device that is used to
isolate one component from reflections of other components in
the transmission line. An ideal isolator completely absorbs the
power for propagation in one direction and provides lossless
transmission in the opposite direction. Thus the isolator is
usually called uniline.

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