Data Communication and

Networking
ITPC 17
References:
•Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A Forouzan,
Behrouz Forouzan, 4th Edition
 Syllabus
 Overview
 Introduction
 Network Models
 Physical Layer and Media
 Data and Signals
 Digital Transmission
 Analog Transmission
 Bandwidth Utilization: Multiplexing and Spreading
 Transmission Media
 Switching
 Using Telephone and Cable Networks for Data Transmission
 Data Link Layer
 Syllabus (Contd…)
• Types of Packet-Switched Network
– Wide Area Networks (WANs)
– Internet Service Providers (ISPs)
– Local Area Networks (LANs)
• 6. LAN overview
– Topologies
– Media
• High-Speed LANs
– Ethernet (IEEE 802.3, 10Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps Ethernet),
– Token Ring
– Fibre Channel
• 8. Media Selection
– Twisted Pair
– Baseband Coax
– Broadband Coax
– Fiber Optics
– Wireless
• Frame Relay
• ATM
• BISDN
• XDSL
 Grading Policy:

• At least Five Assignments [5%] will be issued and each will be due one
week after its issue date unless otherwise specified.
• 10/15 minute Quizzes [10%] will be conducted, may be in each class.
There is no limit for the number of quizzes
• Class Project [10%]- Groups of 3-4 students will conduct research
projects, by the end of semester student will have to submit and present
research paper.
• Class Participation and Technical Discussions [5%]
• Two One-Hour Test [30%].
• Final Test [40%]
 Introduction
• What is Data communication
• Communication model (e.g. Human communication)
• Source
– Generates data
• Transmitter
– Converts data into transmitting signals
• Transmission system
– Carries data
• Receiver
– Converts received signals into data
• Destination
– Takes incoming data
 Communication model in networks

Source Transmitter Transmission Receiver Destination

system
 Data Representation
• Text
– Represented in bits patterns e.g. 0,1
– Different Bit patterns called code.
– Present Coding system: Unicode, 32 bits
• Numbers
– Represented in bit patterns
– Converted into binary for calculations
• Images
– Represented into matrix of pixels/bits
• Audio/Video
– Continuous data
 Flow of Data
• Simplex
– One way traffic only, one device transmits and one receives e.g.
Keyboard->monitor
• Half-duplex
– Both stations can transmit and receive but one at time. e.g. Bus
topology
– Only one path from source to destination.
– collisions may occur
• Full-duplex
– Both can receive and send at the same time. e.g. Star topology.
– Two separate transmission lines.
– collisions free
 Networks
• Nodes interconnected together and share information and
resources.
• Types of Network
– Point to point connections
– Circuit switching network
– Message switching network
– Packet switching network
 Point to point connections

• Not peer to peer

• Dedicated communication circuit
• Fixed configuration
• Direct link between devices
• B and C can be intermediate device to connect A and D
• Connection formed in different sections between users, end to end
connection in series and forms circuit.
• So point to point forms simple connection
• If number of users increased then hard to provide circuit that connects each
user with other users.
• So we need switching which could provide sharing of transmission
circuits.
 Circuit switching network
• This allows the communication circuits to be shared among users.
• E.g. Telephone exchange
• Switching
• It allows equipments and circuits to be shared among users.
• Establishes dedicated circuit between users before communication.
• When circuit is free other users can use this. e.g. telephone calls.
• Telephone exchange is an example of circuit switching.
• Replacement conference calls
 Circuit switching network

•Source connects with switching node

•User requests circuit
•Node B recieves connection request
and identify path to node D via intermediate
node C.
 Message switching network
• Circuit setup, store and forward e.g. Telex or email
• Also called stored and forward switching
• Not necessary to establish circuit between A and D.
• When circuit is free it delivers otherwise waits and store
message.
• But delays may occur.
 Packet switching network

• Similar to message switching

• but divides message into packets/datagram packets of equal
lengths.
• Headers are added to each packets.
• Header contains information about source and destination.
• No need for dedicated circuit.
• As length of packet is small so each link is established for
small time and then it is available for other messages.
• Another benefit is pipelining.
 Packet switching network

Pipelining:
When data sent from B to C at the
same time data packet is being sent
from A to B.
This results in gain of efficiency. And
total delay for the transmission of
Message is very less.
 Types of Packet switching network

• LANs
• WANs
• ISPs
• (will be discussed in detail once we set strong base for these networks)
 Physical Topologies
• Difference between Network topology and physical topology.
• Network Topology: Defines structure of network
• Physical topology: Layout of the wire or media.
• But physical topology is a part of network topology.
• Physical topology:
– BUS
– Star
– Ring
– Mesh
– Tree
 BUS
• Uses single backbone cable, All hosts directly connected to
this backbone.
• Inexpensive and easy to install
• All nodes receives data
• Ends terminated with a device terminator.
• Two types of BUS
– Linear
• All nodes connected to common medium which has only two end points.
– Distributed
• All nodes connected to common medium which has more then two end
points.
 RING
• All nodes connected to one another in form of closed loop.
• Expensive and difficult to install but offers high bandwidth,
not robust.
• Point to point connection with only two devices.
• Signal is passed in one direction only, moves until it reaches to
its destination.
• Each device connected with a repeater.
• One signal always circulates for fault detection. If device don’t
receives signal for specified time it generates alarm.
 STAR
• Connects all devices with central point.
• Central point can be hub.
• Data transmitted reaches to central point, who decides where
to send data.
• Bottleneck occur because all data pass from hub.
• Less expensive and easy to install, robust if one link is down
still remains active.
• Disadvantage: dependency one central unit.
• Star is used in LANs
• Types of STAR Topology
• Extended STAR
– Has one or more repeaters from central node to extend maximum transmission
distance.
– If repeaters in extended star topology is replace with hub or switches then it
creates Hybrid topology.
– Or if backbone as star topology and extended with bus then it also creates
Hybrid topology.
– Connecting two or more topologies with each other forms hybrid topology.
• Distributed STAR
– Individual networks based on
star topology
– These networks do not have central
or top level connection points.
 MESH
• Each host has its dedicated point to point link with every other host.
• Link only carries data between two devices only (no other can use that link)
• If there are n number of nodes in network then we need n(n-1) links.
• If link is multi directional or duplex mode then we need n(n-1)/2 links.
• Each device requires n-1 I/O ports to be connected to each device.
• Eliminates traffic problem, Robust, privacy/security of message.
• More cabling required, more I/O ports needed, hard to install, expensive.
 TREE
• Central node connected to one or
more nodes one level lower in
hierarchy.
• Combines characteristics of linear bus and star topology.
• Must have three levels of hierarchy.
• If only two levels then it forms star.
• If branching factor one then linear hierarchy.
• Physical hierarchy will be one less then total number of nodes in network.
• Disadvantage: requires point to point wiring, requires more hardware,
dependent on backbone, difficult to configure.
 OSI Layer model
• OSI: Open System interconnection
• Comprises of seven layers
• For network communication all network devices must speak same
language or protocol.
• Each layer defines how data is treated and goes through different stages
while traveling in network from one place to another.
• All layers are like set of instruction of assembly.
• Gives complete picture of information flows within network.
• All layer are used in end to end systems but only first three layers used in
intermediate systems while network communication.
• OSI layers are divided into two different sets.
• Application Set
– Application set consist of Layer 5,6 and 7.
• Transport set
– Consist of layer 1,2,3 and 4
 Layer 1: Physical Layer

• Physical Layer
– Define physical characteristics of network. E.g. wires, connector,
voltages, data rates, Asynchronous, Synchronous Transmission
– Handles bit stream or binary transmission
– Used to maintain, activate and deactivate physical link.
– For receiver it reassembles bits and send to upper layer for frames.
– For Sender it convert frames
into bit stream and send on
transmission medium.
 Properties Physical Layers
• Deals with bit stream.
• Transmits raw bit stream over physical cable
• defines cables, cards, and physical aspects
• defines NIC attachments to hardware, how cable is attached to
NIC
• defines techniques to transfer bit stream to cable
• Layer 1 Device: Repeater, Hub, Multiplexer
 Layer 2: Data Link Layer

• Maintaining, activating, deactivating data links connection.

• Used to transfer data between two entities.
• Used for error handling (CRC), media access control, flow control.
• MAC headers and trailers are added
• Two major operations:
– Concerned with physical components
– Communicate with upper layers
• Turns packets into bit stream at sending station
• Turns bits into Frames for upper layers at receiving layer.
• Layer 2 devices: Bridges, Switches, intelligent hubs, NIC
 Layer 2 Frames
Frames include information about:
• Which computers are in communication with each other
• When communication between individual computers begins
and when it ends
• Which errors occurred while the computers communicated
(LLC)
 Sub layers of Layer 2
• Logical link layer (LLC)
– Used for communication with upper layers
– Error correction
– Flow control
• Media Access Control (MAC)
– Access to physical medium
– Header and trailer
 Difference between Layer 1 and Layer 2
• Layer 1 cannot communicate with upper layers
• Layer 2 does this using LLC

• Layer 1 cannot identify computer

• Layer 2 uses addressing process

• Layer 1 can only describe stream of bits

• Layer 2 uses framing to organize bits
 Layer 3 Network Layer
• Defines network logical address (not MAC)
• Provide switching and routing facilities
• Determines network address and best path to deliver packets
• Translate logical address into physical address
• This layer responsible for:
– Addressing
– Route selection
• If router cannot send data in same size as sent by source then layer 3
divides data into smaller sizes, at receiving end network layer reassembles
data.
• Forms Packets
• Protocols that operates at layer 3:
– IP, ARP,RARP, ICMP,
• Layer 3 Devices:
– Routers, ATM switches,
 Layer 3 Packets
Packet contains following information:
• Source (source IP address)
• Destination (Destination IP address)
• Length (length of packet)
• Number (Total number of packets in message)
• Sequence (sequence number of packet)
 Layer 4 Transport
• Used for data transfer between end systems.
• Processes to processes delivery (not source to destination delivery)
• Provides QoS
• Whole message is received in order.
• Converts data into segments.
• Ensures data is delivered error free and in order.
• Flow control: send that amount of data which can be handled by
destination. Similarly if data packet lost then resend.
• Protocols at layer 4: TCP, ARP,RARP, UDP
• Layer 4 Network component: Gateways
 Layer 5 Session Layer
• Used for dialogue control and synchronization purposes.
• Establishes sessions between systems.
• Dialog control:
– Dialog between two parties for communication to take place in either
half or full duplex mode.
• Synchronization:
– Add synchronization points to stream of data.
– If session fails only send that data which was not delivered not whole
message.
– E.g. files of 2000MB
 Layer 6 Presentation Layer
• Concerned with syntax and semantics of information.
• Responsible for translation (data into bits and encoding
format), compression, and encryption.
• Translation: data into bits and selecting appropriate encoding
technique and changing from sender format to receiver format.
• Compression: Reduce number of bits.
 Layer 7 Application Layer
• Layer support Software applications to access network.
• Examples: Virtual terminal (Remote desktop), FTP,TFTP,
email (SMTP), Directory services, TELNET.
Transformation of Data in OSI layers
 Advantages of OSI
• Network communication is broken into smaller, more
manageable parts.
• Allows different types of network hardware and software to
communicate with each other.
• All layers are independent and changes does not affect other
layers.
• Easier to understand network communication.
 TCP/IP
Transmission control protocol:
• Guarantees end to end delivery of data segments
• Arrange segments in order.
• Used to check transmission errors.
• Connection oriented (same route, in order) doesn’t mean circuit.
• Reliable process to process communication service.
• Made reliable through sequence number and acknowledgement
Internet Protocol (IP)
• Data sent over internet from source to destination.
• IP is connection less (packets independent, different routes, out of order).
 TCP/IP Layers
• Application layer of TCP/IP includes
functionality of session and presentation
layer of OSI model. Like encoding, dialog
control. Application layer includes
file transfer, email, remote login, network
Management, name management
• Transport layer includes QoS, Flow control
Processes to processes communication
• IP layer includes ARP,RARP, ICMP
• Network layer physical link to media.
 OSI Vs TCP/IP
Similarities include:
• Both have layers.
• Both have application layers, though they include very different services.
• Both have comparable transport and network layers.
• Both assume packets are switched. This means that individual packets may take different
paths to reach the same destination. This is contrasted with circuit-switched networks where
all the packets take the same path.
Differences include:
• TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its application layer.
• TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into the network access layer.
• TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer layers.
• TCP/IP protocols are the standards around which the Internet developed, so the TCP/IP model
gains credibility just because of its protocols. In contrast, networks are not usually built on the
OSI protocol, even though the OSI model is used as a guide.
 Layered Protocols
• Internet Protocol (IP) (Layer 3 protocol)
– Used for data communication in packet switched network
– Unreliable and connectionless (no specific path)
– Unreliable
• Data corruption
• Packet lost
• Out of order
– Packet called Datagram
– internetworking computers
– IPv4, IPv6
 IPv4
• Internet protocol version 4
• Uses 32 bit address.
• Possible addresses 2^32 = 4,294,967,296 (4.3 billion)
• Some addresses are reserved like private addresses plus multicast
addresses.
• Private addresses (LANs)
– 10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255
– 172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255
– 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255
– Total reserved private addresses = 18 Million
• Multicast addresses
– 224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255
– Total multicast addresses = 270 million
• Available addresses = possible addresses – (private addresses+ multicast
addresses)
 IPv6
• Increase in number of addresses
• 128 bits long address
• Possible addresses 2^128
• 2^96 more address then IPv4
• ARP, RARP, IGMP are deleted or merged into ICMPv6
protocol.
• Example : 207. 142. 131. 235. 207. 142. 131. 235. 207. 142.
131. 235. 207. 142. 131. 235
 ARP Protocol (layer 3)
• Stands for address resolution protocol
• Finding physical address from logical address
• Host or router transmit IP datagram packet containing logical
address obtained from DNS.
• Query is broadcast but reply is unicast.
• Request contains sender and receiver IP plus sender physical
address.
• Reply contains physical address.
• Proxy ARP. (router sends its physical address)
• ARP is used in four cases of two hosts communicating:
– When two hosts are on the same network and one desires to send a packet to
the other. (same network)
– When two hosts are on different networks and must use a gateway/router to
reach the other host (internet)
– When a router needs to forward a packet for one host through another router.
(internet)
– When a router needs to forward a packet from one host to the destination host
on the same network. (internet)
• Reverse of ARP
• Finding logical address from physical address
• Request broadcast to network.
• Based on Client server protocol.
 ICMP (Layer 3)
• Used to report errors with delivery of IP data.
• E.g. if particular service or host not reachable or to check routers are
correctly routing .
• Ping tool uses ICMP to check host is reachable and how long it takes to
reach.
• ICMP message is delivered in IP packet.
• Error reporting not error correction.
• Two types of messages
– Error reporting message
• Problems with router or host e.g. destination unreachable, time exceeded, parameters
problem
– Query message
• Help in getting specific information. e.g. neighbors
 ICMP Errors
• Network Errors:
– Host or network unreachable
– Network congestion message:
• When router buffers too many packets, and don’t process with same speed
as received, generates source quench message. Too many messages results
congestion.
– Time exceed
• ICMP timeout message is generated when host is unreachable.
• If errors in routing table, packets travel in loop. At each router value is
decremented by 1.
• When TTL value reaches to 0, packet discarded with ICMP error.
• TTL value is default
 IGMP Layer 3
• Internet group management protocol
• Protocol involved in multicasting.
• Protocol that manages group membership.
• Provides information to multicast routers about the
membership status of hosts.
• Router receives thousand of multicast packets, if destination
unreachable broadcast packets. Increases traffic load.
• IGMP help router in providing this information.
• Agent maintains, edit membership and provide information of
group.
 IGMP (contd….)
• IGMP has following messages
– Query
• Request for information of hosts
– Joining report
• If one process in group sends membership report.
– Leaving report
• When no other processes in company
 BOOTP and DHCP
• BOOTP
• Acquire IP automatically
• It enables diskless workstations to
– Discover it IP address
– Discover IP of BOOTP server
– Load file into memory for booting
• DHCP
• Clients obtain following automatically
– IP address
– Default gateway
– Subnet mask
– IP address of DNS server
• DHCP address allocation
• Manual allocation
– Table is configured at server with MAC addresses manually
• Automatic allocation
– Permanently assigns IP from free IP addresses range
• Dynamic allocation
– Dynamic reuse IP addresses using TCP/IP software configured at
client.
 TCP Layer 4
• Transmission control protocol
• Used for exchange of data with applications.
• Reorders data
• Divides data into segments of equal sizes.
• Applications send octets to TCP for transmission, TCP divides
into equal segments.
• TCP keeps check that if bytes are damaged, through
checksum.
• Sender and receiver both check damaged bytes.
 TCP Packet fields
• Source: 16 bit
• Destination: 16 bit
• Sequence number: 32 bit
• Acknowledgement number: 32 bit, receiver increment by 1 as
acknowledge.
• Header: 20-60 bytes
• Reserved: 6 bits
• Control: 6 different bits
 UDP
• Minimum overhead.
• Used to send short messages.
• Not reliable as TCP (out of order, missing datagram, , duplicate datagram).
• Lack of flow control and error control
• Faster and efficient
• Communication takes place using ports.
• Header contains following information:
– Source port number (16 bits)
– Destination port number (16 bits)
– Total length(16 bits)
– checksum(16 bits)
• Pseudoheader contains rest of information about source address, dstination
address, etc
 DNS Layer 7
• Domain name system
• Stores information about hosts
• Maps names of hosts into IP addresses.
• E.g. google.com is the name space,
• Domain name can have tree like structure.
• Resolver sends DNS request to DNS server.
• Domain should be unique, but duplication among domains is possible.
• Resolver request sent to server, if cannot resolve then referred to another server.
• Mail.google.com: level three doamin
• There can only be 127 levels each level can have 63 characters
• Lists are maintain by the registrars.
• Mainly domain name has two parts
– Rights most represent toop level domain
– Left specifies subdomain
• Every domain has one or more domain name server
 Case Study

Logical address remains same but only physical address changes.

 Modes of transmission
• Unicast
– Information sent from one sender to one receiver
– Use standard unicast applications e.g. ftp, http, smtp and telnet
• Broadcast
– Information sent from one sender and all other connected receiver
– ARP uses broadcast to resolve address
– 255.255.255.255
• Multicast
– Information sent from one or more sender to a particular set of users.
– E.g. video server transmitting TV channels
 Transmission Impairment
• Attenuation
• Propagation delay
• Distortion
• Noise
• Crosstalk
• Jitter
 Attenuation
• Reduction in strength of signals
• Also referred as Loss
• Signals traveling on long distance looses their strength.
• Signals losses some of their energy and signals are converted into heat.
• Represented in Decibels
• Cables measured in ‘decibels per foot’.
• More efficient cable = less attenuation per unit distance.
• Repeaters are used to overcome attenuation.
• Repeaters regenerates signals.
 Propagation delay
• Delay from the time signal transmitted and the time signal
received.
• Measured in milliseconds.
• Varies from medium to medium
• Distortion
• Change in shape of signal
Distortion
 Noise
• Addition of external factors in signals
• Noise can disturb data.
• Two wires can generate voltage noise which affects data.
• Noise which corrupts data can be:
– Thermal noise (signals generated by electrons by random motion)
– Induced noise (generated by motors and appliances)
– Crosstalk (affect of one wire on another)
– Impulse noise (generated by power lines)
 Crosstalk & Jitter
• One line induces signal into another
• Mostly happens in pair cables.
Jitter
• Variation in the signals or data packets at destination with variation of
time. E.g. application at destination is time sensitive like audio or video
stream.
• Jitter can be of two types
– Amplitude jitter
• Small constant change in amplitude, can be caused by power noise
– Phase jitter
• Small constant change in phase of signal,
 Performance
• Bandwidth
– Bandwidth in hertz
• Range of frequencies contained in signal
– Bandwidth in bits per second
• Number of bits per second a channel or network can transmit
• Throughput
– How fast a data can be sent through a network
– Bandwidth and throughput are different
– Link with bandwidth 1Mbps but device can only process 200 Kbps.
• Latency
– Delay between the message transmitted and message received.
– Latency can be caused due to:
• Propagation time
• Transmission time
• Queuing time
• Processing time.
• Propagation time
– Time required by bit to travel from source to destination
– That is total distance per unit speed
• Transmission time
– Time required to send complete message
– Measured in message size per unit bandwidth available
• Queuing time
– Time required by intermediate device to processes data.
– varies with load on network.
– E.g. packets queuing
 Transmission media
• Two types of media
• Guided
– Uses cabling system to guide data signals to a specific path.
• Unguided
– Data signals travels not to a specific path.
• Types of Guided media
– Open wire
– Twisted pair
– Coaxial cable
– Optic fiber
• Important consideration related to cables performance
– Speed for data transmission
– Digital (Baseband) or analog transmission
– How far signal travels before it gets attenuated.
• Specification related to cable type are:
– 10BASE-T
– 10BASE5
– 10BASE2
 Open wire
• Open electric wires
• No shielding or protection from external noise
• Cannot be used for data transmission but for less distances.
 Coaxial cable
• Outer shield protects inner shield from outer electric signals.
• Similarly insulator between two conductors protects them
from noise generated by either conductor.
• Cable has 10 – 100 Mbps speed
• Inexpensive
• Maximum cable length 500m.
• Coaxial cable offers several advantages for LAN.
• Run longer distance then other cables.
 Twisted pair
• Wires are twisted in pairs
• Each pair carries +ve and –ve signals
• Noise appearing on one wire will also occur on other wire of
same pair.
• Noise appeared on both wires of pair will cancel its affect.
• Twists of pair cancels the noise affect.
• Increase in the number of turns per foot reduces noise
interference.
Types of Twisted pair
• Shielded twisted pair
– STP cable combine the techniques of cancellation, shielding and twisted wires.
– Each pair wrapped in metallic foil, then two pairs are wrapped in overall
metallic foil.
– STP reduces
• Electric noise within pairs and outside noise
• crosstalk
– STP provide protection from all kind of noises
– It is expensive and hard to install.
• 0 – 100 Mbps Speed
• Maximum cable length 100m before signals attenuated.
Shielded twisted pair
 Unshielded Twisted pair
• Eight cables, Four pairs
• Each cable is covered with insulating material
• Each pair is twisted around each other for cancellation effect.
• Advantages include
• Speed 10 – 100 – 1000 Mbps (depend on category)
• Les expensive and easy to install.
• Maximum length 100 m
• Uses RJ-45 connector.
• Electric noise may occur.
Unshielded Twisted pair
 UTP cable
• Straight through cable (different devices)
• Crossover cable (similar devices)
• Rollover cable (RJ-45 to DB-9)
 Optical Fiber
• Data or information is transmitted as light pulses.
• Carries more data for longer distances and much more speed
as compare to other media.
• Requires more protection.
• There are two modes of optical fiber.
• Multimode
• Single mode
• Multimode used for short distances whereas single mode is
used for longer distances.
 Optical Fiber
• Optical fiber is not affected by outer noise.
• No crosstalk.
• Attenuation is caused by tight bends
• Bends causes cracks in the cladding and light rays are
scattered.
• Scattering, absorption, dispersion, improper installation causes
fiber losses.
 Multimode optical fiber
• Multimode operates at multiple beams.
• core in diameter is larger.
• Multimode has two forms:
• Step index optical fiber
• Graded index
• Two glass fibers are used for two way communication.
• Carries data up to 2000m.
 Single mode Optical fiber
• Only allows one beam of light to travel
• Core is smaller in diameter.
• Light beam travels in the middle of the core.
• Single mode has higher data rates and greater speed.
• Single mode can carry data up to 3000m.
 Unguided media
• Based on electromagnetic waves
• Do not use any physical conductor
• Signals are broadcast
• Electromagnetic spectrum
– Radio waves & micro waves :3kHz to 300GHz
– Infrared waves: 300GHz to 400GHz
• Ways in which signals travel from source to destination.
– Ground propagation (low frequency signals)
– Sky propagation (higher frequency signals, reflected back to earth)
– Line of sight propagation (very high frequency signals, diected from antenna to
antenna)
 Multiplexer
• Make good use of available bandwidth.
• Simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single
data link.
• n lines share the bandwidth of one link.
• Saves cost of multiple channels.
• We combine mux and De-mux into a single unit.
• Types of multiplexer
• Frequency division
• Time-division
• Wavelength division
 Frequency division
• When bandwidth (Hz) of link is greater then combined
bandwidth of signals.
• Each sending device modulate Signals at different carrier
frequency.
• Modulated signals are combined into a single signal.
• Channels are formed through which various signals travel.

Channel 1
DE
MUX Channel 2
Channel 3 MUX
 Wavelength-Division multiplexing
• Designed to use high data rates like optical fiber.
• Multiplexing allows to combine several lines into one.
• Same as FDM but operates optical signals instead of
frequency signals.

λ1 λ1
λ2 DE
MUX λ2
λ3 λ1 λ2 λ3 MUX
λ3
 Time division multiplexing
• Instead of sharing portion of bandwidth as in FDM, time is
shared.
• Each connection occupies a portion of time in link.

1
1
2 DE
MUX 2
3 MUX
3
Data flow
 Spread Spectrum
• We combine different sources to fit in larger bandwidth.
• But used in wireless applications.
• Wireless application uses air as medium for communication.
• Frequency of transmitted signal varies which results in higher bandwidth
then required.
• So it spreads the original spectrum.
• conventional wireless systems remains at a fixed frequency. E.g. 101 MHz
not goes upto 105Mhz, location can be identified.
• Two types
• Frequency hoping spread spectrum
– Signal is modulated by set of frequencies to expand bandwidth.
• Direct sequence spread spectrum
– Each bit is assigned a code of n bits to increase the bandwidth.
 IPv4 Addressing
• Class A addresses begin with 0xxx, or 1 to 126 decimal.
• Class B addresses begin with 10xx, or 128 to 191 decimal.
• Class C addresses begin with 110x, or 192 to 223 decimal.
• Class D addresses begin with 1110, or 224 to 239 decimal.
• Class E addresses begin with 1111, or 240 to 254 decimal
 Parts of IP address belong to Network
• Class A -- NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn
• Class B -- NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn
• Class C --
NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn
• Each network IP has two parts
– Network where system is connected
– System itself
 Subnetting
• Dividing and identifying separate networks through LANs
• Prevents complete address exhaustion.
• Break into smaller pieces
• 2n-2 is the formula used to calculate total number of subnets
and nodes.
• CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing
• Example: we need 32 IP
 Datagram Networks
• Each message transmitted is converted into different packets
of same sizes.
• Each packet is treated independently.
• Packets in this approach are referred to as datagram .
• Do not follow same path.
• Reach at destination in out of order.
• Datagram are connectionless.
• No setup or teardown phases.
• Routing table is used to send packets from source to
destination.
Case study
• Efficiency: better then circuit switching network.
• Resources can be controlled, only used when transmitting
packets.
• Delay: datagram network has greater delay then circuit
switching network.
• Have to wait at each switch before transmission.
 Virtual circuit networks
• Combination of circuit and packet switching networks.
Has following properties.
– Setup and teardown connection, like circuit switching, before data transfer.
– Resources are allocated during setup phase (circuit) or on demand (packet).
– Data is divided into datagram packets.
– But all packets follow same path.
• Has following processes.
– Setup
– Data transfer
– Acknowledgement
– teardown
 Random Access method
• Each station is independent and can send data at any time.
• Has different protocols
– ALOHA
– CSMA/CD
– CSMA/CA
• ALOHA
– Developed earlier in 1970
– Each station can sends frame at any time.
– There is only one channel
– Collision possible.
– ALOHA relies on acknowledgements
– If ACK not received after time out period sender assumes frame destroyed it
resends.
– If all nodes resend at same time again collision possible.
– So each station waits for random amount of time.