Week 14 (S2)

Color and Flavor

Dr. Rovina Kobun, Dr. Nor Qhairul Izzreen Mohd
Nor, Umi Hartina Mohamad Razali

Faculty of Food Science and Nutrition (FSMP)

Universiti Malaysia Sabah
Color

• Color is an important sensory

attribute of foods that often plays an
important role in the market success
of a product.

• Often used by the consumer as an

indicator of a variety of qualities of
the food product, such as flavor,
safety, nutritional value, and more.

(Gregory et al., 2017)

 • Quality (freshness ≈ glossy; processed food vs. fresh food
≈
• processing & preservation);
• Preferences – colour selection especially for childrens &
women ≈ sweetshop & grocery;
• Taste perception (sweet/sour/bitter/astringent);
• Level of cooked (not cooked, half cooked, overcooked ≈
brown bread crust, pink of cured meat, boiled vegetables)

Color
 • Perhaps one of the most important attributes dictating liking and
willingness to eat for a particular food.
• Defined as the interpretation by the brain of a light signal coming from
a sample.
• A colorant is any chemical, either natural or synthetic, that imparts
color.
• Foods have color because of their ability to reflect or emit different
quantities of energy at wavelengths able to stimulate the retina in the
eye.
• The energy range to which the eye is sensitive is referred to as visible
light, with wavelength 380–770 nm.

Color
 TYPE OF FOOD COLORANTS

NATURAL APPLICATION

 Obtained from natural

sources from plant, fungi
and insect.
 Unstable and high cost.

SYNTHETIC
Fig. 1. Food colorants
 High stability.
 Chemically synthesized.
 No nutritional value
 Electrochemically active and
easily undergo reduction. Fig. 2. Application of synthetic colorants

(El-Sheikh and Al-Degs, 2013)

 Sunset Yellow Azorubine/Carmosine Amaranth

Ponceau 4R, Cochineal Brilliant Black BN,

Allura Red AC
Red A Black PN

Brown HT Litholrubine BK

Synthetic colorants
 Sunset Yellow

Azo Azorubine/Carmosine
Amaranth
Ponceau 4R, Cochineal Red A
Allura Red AC
Brilliant Black BN, Black PN
Brown HT
Litholrubine BK
Quinoline Yellow

Non- Erythrosine

Patent Blue V

azo Brilliant Blue FCF

Green S

beta-apo-8’-carotenal

Synthetic colorants
Table 1: Synthetic food colors allowed based on Federal Regulations
(CFR) of the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

No. Synthetic color Code No. Color shade

1 1 Brilliant blue FCF E133 Blue
2 Indigotine E132 Blue
3 Fast green FCF E143 Bluish green
4 Allura red AC E129 Red
5 Erythrosine E127 Pink
6 Tartrazine E102 Yellow
7 Sunset yellow FCF E110 Orange
Effect of synthetic
colorants

(Sarah et al., 2016; WHO, 2000; FAO, 1984)

Natural colorants

 Anthocyanins (E163)
 Betalains (E162)
 Caramels (E150)
 Carmine (E120)
 Carotenoids (E160, E161)
 Curcumin (turmeric) (E100)
 Marennine
 Melanins
 Riboflavin (E101)
 Tetrapyrroles (chlorophylls and phycobilins)
 Vegetable carbon black (E153)
Classification of natural colorants

BY CHEMICAL BY HUE AND

BY SOURCE
STRUCTURE APPLICATION
Plant Flavonoid Derivatives: Warm colors
Animal Anthocyanins • Red
• Orange-yellow
Microbial Isoprenoid Derivatives:
Carotenoids Cool colors
Mineral • Purple
Pyrrole Derivatives: • Blue
Chlorophylls • Green
Nitrogen-Heterocyclic Other colors
Derivatives: Betalains • Brown
• Black
• White
 Table 1: Example of major colorants from natural sources (or nature identical):
chemical classification sources, colors, and regulatory status in the United States and
European Union (CFR 2016, Food Stand. Agency 2014)
Fig. 1. Chemical structure of selected natural pigments with potential
food use, organized according to their chemical classification.
Fig. 2. Representative food colorants from natural
sources, organized according to their hue.
 • Colour is one of the first characteristics
perceived by consumer and as a means
of identification and, ultimately,
acceptance of a food product.
• Both the quality and the flavour of food
Natural are closely are closely associate with
colour.
colorants • Natural colours are those extracted from
animal, vegetable or mineral sources.
• They often lack consistency of shade,
light and heat stability and may
introduce undesirable flavours into food
products.
 Heme
compounds

Pigments Beta hyll

in animal lains
Chlo
rop

and plant
tissue
An
s a t ho c s
n y id
Ph d O anin te no
en the ro
ols r Ca
Classification of Plant and Animal Pigments Based on
Their Chemical Structure
 • Heme pigments are responsible for the
color of meat.
• Myoglobin is the primary pigment in
muscle, while hemoglobin, the pigment
of blood, is of secondary importance in
1. HEME meat.
COMPOUN • The myoglobin content varies
considerably among muscle tis- sues and
DS is influenced by factors including
species, muscle type, age, sex, rearing
conditions, and physical activity.
 Myoglobin/Hemoglobin

The chromophore component

Myoglobin is a globular protein responsible for light absorption
with three-dimensional and color is a porphyrin known
structure, that binds both iron as heme, which is composed of
and oxygen and consists of a four pyrrole rings joined
single polypeptide chain. together and linked to a central
iron atom
 Myoglobin/Hemoglobin

The oxidation state of this

The heme porphyrin is
iron atom, the status of the
present within a hydrophobic
hematin nucleus, and the
pocket of the globin protein
state of the globin protein are
and bound to a histidine
important for determining
residue
the color of meat.
Chemistry and Color: Oxidation State

• Meat color is determined by the chemistry of myoglobin, including its

state of oxidation, the type of ligands bounds to heme, and the state
of the globin protein.
• The heme iron within the porphyrin ring may exist in two oxidation
states: either as the reduced ferrous (Fe2+) or oxidized ferric (Fe3+)
form.
• This state of oxidation for the iron atom within heme should be
distinguished from oxygenation of myoglobin.
• Oxygenation occurs when molecular oxygen binds to myoglobin and
oxymyoglobin is formed.
• When oxidation of myoglobin occurs, the iron atom is converted from
the ferrous to the ferric state, forming metmyoglobin.
Major Pigments Found in Fresh, Cured and Cooked
Meat
Myoglobin reactions in fresh and cured meats
 • The main factor determining consumer acceptance of
meats is muscle color. Many factors in a complex food
system can influence the stability of meat pigments.
• When the globin part of the compound is not intact,
myoglobin cannot bind to oxygen and the prevalence
of iron oxidized in the ferric form is increased.

Stability of • Some environmental conditions that have important

effects on meat color and pigment stability include
exposure to light, temperature, relative humidity, pH,
Meat Pigments and the presence of specific bacteria.
• Other biochemical factors, such as the rate of oxygen
consumption prior to slaughter and activity of
metmyoglobin reductase, can influence the color
stability of fresh meat.
• Color stability can be improved by the addition of
antioxidants such as ascorbic acid, vitamin E, butyl-
ated hydroxyanisole (BHA), or propyl gallate.
• Irradiation of meats can also cause color changes
because of the susceptibility of the myo- globin
molecule, especially the iron, to alterations in the
chemical environment and to energy input.
2. CHLOROPHYLL

• Chlorophylls are the major light-harvesting

pigments in green plants, algae, and
photosynthetic bacteria.
• They are responsible for the bright-green
color of many fresh vegetables and are
linked to consumer perception of quality.
• Loss of green color during vegetable
processing and storage can be attributed
to chlorophyll degradation.
Relationship between chlorophyll and its derivatives
Alterations
of Enzymatic

Chlorophyl Metallocomplex
Photodegradation
Allomerization
Heat and Acid
Formation

l
Color loss during thermal processing

• Loss of green color in thermally processed

vegetables results from degradation of
chlorophylls and the subsequent
formation of pheophytins and
pyropheophytins.
• Commercial heat sterilization can reduce
chlorophyll content by as much as 80%–
100%
Technology of color preservation

ACID NOVEL PROCESSING COMMERCIAL REGREENING OF

NEUTRALIZATION TO TECHNIQUES APPLICATION OF THERMAL-PROCESSED
RETAIN CHLOROPHYLL METALLOCOMPLEXES VEGETABLES
 1. Nature’s most widespread pigments which provide the
characteristic yellow, orange, and red colors of many fruits,
vegetables, and plant life.
2. A large majority of these pigments are biosynthesized by
the ocean algae population.
3. Found to be both heat sensitive and lipophilic However,
when bound to proteins, they can produce green, blue, and
purple colors as well.
4. Exist in all photosynthetic organisms and can be produced

3. 5.
by some bacteria, yeasts, and fungi.
Two classes: the hydrocarbon carotenes and the
CAROTENO 6.
oxygenated xanthophylls
Xanthophylls consist of a variety of derivatives frequently
IDS containing hydroxyl, epoxy, aldehyde, carboxylic acid, and
keto groups.
7. Fatty acid esters of hydroxylated carotenoids are also widely
found in nature.
8. When the cis (Z) and trans (E) geometric isomers or R and S
enantiomers are considered, many more configurations are
possible.
9. Carotenoids are biosynthesized in plants via a mevalonic
acid–independent pathway called the methylerythritol 4-
phosphate pathway
Structures and formulas of carotenoids and apocarotenoids commonly
acting as colorants in food and feed
 Carotenoids are
lipophilic compounds
and soluble in oils and
organic solvents

Moderately heat stable

Physical within a food matrix and
properties are subject to loss of
color by oxidation.

Easily isomerized by
heat, acid, or light.
 Oxidation

Chemical Antioxidant Activity

properties

Cis/Trans
Isomerization
 Stable during typical
storage and handling
of most fruits and
vegetables.

Stability Freezing causes little

during change in carotene
content.
processing

Blanching influence
the level of
carotenoids.
 • The word anthocyanin is derived from
two Greek words: “anthos,” flower, and
“kyanos,” blue.
4. • Responsible for a wide range of colors in
ANTHOCYANI plants, including blue, purple, violet,
magenta, red, and orange.
NS AND • Phenolic compounds comprise a large
OTHER group of organic substances, and
PHENOLS flavonoids are an important subgroup.
• Most broadly distributed pigment
groups in the plant world which contain
flavonoid subgroup.
The effect of the number of hydroxyl and methoxy groups on color
 5. BETALAINS

• Betalains are a class of

nitrogen-containing
pigments made up of two
structural subgroups,
betacyanins (red/violet)
and betaxanthins
(yellow/orange).
• Chemical properties:
1. Heat and/or pH
2. Oxygen and Light
3. Enzymatic
4. Conversion and
Stability
Flavor
 When food is consumed, the interaction of taste, odor and
textural feeling provides an overall sensation.

Flavor is caused by receptors in the mouth and nose detecting

chemicals found within food.

These receptors respond by producing signals that are interpreted

by the brain as sensations of taste and aroma.

Certain taste and aroma combinations are characteristic of

FLAVOR particular foods.

One of the most important components responsible for the

overall sensory properties of taste and smell in any food products.

Important in consumer satisfaction, which will subsequently drive

consumers’ acceptance and influences the continued
consumption of foods.
Among the many organoleptic quality components, flavor takes a
particular place through stimulating the odor and taste receptors
when eating.
• FLAVORS?

• FLAVOR ENHANCERS?
 1 2 3
Aroma: – it occurs inside of our Taste: – Taste involves tongue Flavour: – It is the combination
nose. It is nothing but the smell and rest of mouth. Our mouth of aroma, taste and mouth feel.
or odor of volatile compounds. has two types of receptors. One Flavour is the brain’s association
When it reaches in our nose, is taste buds and second is between what it smells through
olfactory receptors identify mouth feel. Taste buds are the nose, tastes with the tongue
them. present on all over the tongue. and feels in the mouth.
This gives sweet, salt, bitter and
sour tastes in wine.
Flavor

Food flavor consists of aroma, taste and sense, among which aroma is most
important.

Aroma greatly impacts the flavor profile of food items such as fruits (Schieberle &
Hofman, 1997), cheese (Carunchiawhetstine et al., 2003), wine (Guth, 1997), coffee
(Bhumiratana, Adhikari & Chambers, 2011), meat (Mottram, 1998), etc.

Flavors play an important role in making our food and beverages taste so good.
 Flavoring substances

Natural flavorings complex

Smoke flavorings
Types of
flavorings
Spices & oleoresin

Thermally processed flavors

Flavor enhancers
 Sour

• H+ ions
• Concentration is proportional to taste intensity among
inorganic ions
• Organic ions are stronger than inorganic ions at same
concentration.
• Intensity of taste depends on the potential of the acid
• i.e. A weak acid taste as the same as a strong acid at
• same concentration.
• Ex : Acetic acid, Citric acid, Tartaric acid , Lactic acid,
gamma amino butyric acid

Taste Salt

• Na+
• K, Ca & Mg salts of adipic, succinic, glutamic, carbonic,
lactic, hydrochloric, tartaric and citric acids.
• Monopotassium phosphate, adipic and glutamic acids
and potassium sulfate.
• Choline salt of acetic, carbonic, lactic, hydrochloric,
tartaricandcitricacids.
• Potassium salt of guanylic and inosinic acids
• Sodium chloride is sweet at low, but salty at higher
concentrations.
 Bitter

• Phenolic compound
• Cinnamic acid
• Tannins to Green Tea
• Glycocidic compounds
• Nicotine to Pan Beetle Mix
• Caffeine to Coffee
• Alkali metals
• Innorganic salts of Mg, Ca, NH4+ to hard water

Sweet

Taste •
•
•
Lactose, Glucose, Maltose, Succrose
Glycerol
Mannitol, Maltitol, Xylitol
• Ketones (after excercise)
• Saccharine
• Aspartame

Ummami

• Glutamate
• Glutamic acid
• Specific ribonucleotides
• Salts of glutamic acid
• Salts of glutamate (MSG, KG, CaG)
 MECHANISMS OF CONCENTRATION OF FACTORS AFFECTING
FLAVOR PERCEPTION FLAVOR COMPOUNDS PARTITION AND
IN THE RECEPTORS RELEASE OF FLAVOR
COMPOUNDS IN THE
MOUTH

Physical and
chemical
stability
RATE OF PHYSICAL AND BINDING BEHAVIOR OF
VOLATILIZATION CHEMICAL STATES OF FLAVOR COMPOUNDS
FLAVOR COMPOUNDS
IN FOODS

FACTORS AFFECTING
PARTITION
COEFFICIENTS
 Caramelization,
Heat treatment
millard reaction

Factor
affecting Oxidation
Packaging
flavor materials
stability
Storage Enzymatic
condition activity
Enhanced Microencapsulation
the
stability
of flavor Granulation
Natural flavors

 Flavor constituents derived from plant or animal

sources, obtained from plant or animal raw
materials, by physical, microbiological or enzymatic
processes.
 They can be either used in their natural form or
processed form for consumption.
 Examples: spices, fruit juices, eggs, herbs, edible
yeast, vegetable juice.
 Nature-identical
flavoring

• Obtained by synthesis or are isolated

through chemical processes in a
laboratory but their chemical
structures are identical to the
substances present in natural
products.
• These flavorings do not contain any
artificial flavoring substances.
• Example: Vanillin, the main
component of vanilla beans which
can be produced as a natural or a
nature-identical flavoring substance.
Artificial flavoring

• Flavorings containing all or some portion of non-

natural materials.
• Artificial flavors are carefully selected to provide a
larger and more diverse variety of flavors.
• These are substances that have no equivalent in
nature.
• Typically produced by fractional distillation and
additional chemical manipulation of naturally
sourced chemicals or from crude oil or coal tar.
• Example: Ethyl vanillin, which is artificial and
smells and tastes like vanillin yet is roughly three
times more taste-intensive when added to food
products.
 Table 1: Most commonly used chemicals in food
flavouring

Chemical Flavor
Allylpyrazine Roasted nut
Methoxypyrazines Earthy vegetables
2-Isobutyl-3 Methoxypyrazine Green pepper
Acetyl-L-Pyrazines Popcorn
2-Acetoxy Pyrazine Toasted flavours
Aldehydes Fruity, green
Alcohols Bitter, medicinal
Esters Fruity
Ketones Butter, caramel
Pyrazines Brown, burnt, caramel
Phenolics Medicinal, smokey
Terpenoids Citrus, piney
 1. Spices and herbs
 Consists of dried plant products that exhibit
flavor and aroma.
 Derived from true aromatic vegetable
substances from which the volatiles and
flavoring principles have not been removed.
Materials for
flavorings 2. Essential oils and their extracts
 Odorous oils obtained from plant material and
have major odor that is characteristic of that
material.
 Most have poor water solubility and mostly
contain terpenes (contributed to poor water
solubility and off-flavor).
 Example: essential oil of bitter almond, anise,
clove
 3. Fruits and fruit juices
 Natural flavorings obtained from fruits
 Fruits extracts made by extraction with
water-alcohol mixture
Materials for
flavorings 4. Aliphatic, aromatic and terpene
compounds
 Synthetic chemicals isolated from
natural materials
 Encompasses the largest group of
flavoring materials
Flavor Enhancers

• Used to enhance the existing flavor in the food.

Food flavor enhancers are commercially produced
in the form of instant soups, frozen dinners and
snack foods etc.

• Modify flavors in the food without contributing to

any significant flavor of their own.

• Controlled quantities of these is safe but if

ingested in large quantities, they may lead to high
blood pressure or some allergies.
 Monosodium
glutamate (MSG)

Disodium Flavor Hydrolyzed soy

guanylate or
inosinate Enhancers protein

Autolyzed yeast
extract
 • Known as sodium
glutamate, is
the sodium salt of gluta
mic acid, one of the
most abundant naturally
occurring non-
essential amino acids.
• Used to add a meaty or
savory flavor to foods.
• Used in Asian food, spice
mixes, meat or fish
products, salad
dressings, dry or canned
soups and frozen foods.

1. Monosodium glutamate
(MSG)
2. Disodium guanylate

 To add a meaty or savory flavor to foods

 Produced by fermentation, usually of tapioca starch, although it can
come from other vegetable sources as well.
 It can be classified under "natural flavors" on a food label, so it isn't
always easy to determine if a food contains this additive.
 Used in pasta products, processed vegetables, dairy products,
processed fruits, candies, breakfast cereals, processed meat or
poultry, fish products, egg products, condiments, alcoholic
beverages, energy or sports drinks, soups and sauces.
3. Hydrolyzed soy protein

 Obtained by protein hydrolysis and are used as

ingredients with an authentic bouillon (broth) taste.
 Made mainly from protein resources of vegetable
origin, such as maize gluten, soybean meal, or
wheat gluten.
 Proteins consist of chains of amino acids joined
together through amide bonds.
 When subjected to hydrolysis (hydrolyzed), the
protein is broken down into its component amino
acids.
4. Autolyzed yeast extract

 Food ingredient or additive that comes as a

liquid, paste, powder, or in a granular state. It
is used as a flavoring agent or enhancer, and as
a firming agent. It comes from yeast that has
been specially treated.
 The simpler amino acids that are left from the
process can enhance the taste of certain foods.
 Contains the insoluble components of the
destroyed cell walls. This can be used itself as a
flavor enhancer or as an ingredient to make
other processed flavors if clarity is not
important to the resultant ingredient.
 Autolyzed yeast extract is made by separating
the cell components from the amino acid
components. The separated insoluble cell wall
components are separately dried and can be
used for animal fodder.
Potential side effects

SOME PEOPLE EXPERIENCE ADVERSE EFFECTS, SUCH AS SENSITIVE INDIVIDUALS MAY EXPERIENCE FLUSHING,
NAUSEA AND HEADACHE, AFTER EATING FOODS THAT PALPITATIONS, DROWSINESS, NUMBNESS AND TINGLING
CONTAIN FLAVOR ENHANCERS. WHEN CONSUMING VERY LARGE AMOUNTS OF FLAVOR
ENHANCERS, ESPECIALLY IF IT IS CONSUMED WITHOUT FOOD.
 Summary

Types of Ingredients What They Do Example of uses Names found

on product labels
Flavors Add specific flavors Pudding and pie fillings, Natural flavoring and
(natural and synthetic) gelatin dessert mixes, artificial flavor
cake mixes, salad
dressings, candies, soft
drinks, ice cream, BBQ
sauce

Flavor enhancers Enhance flavors already Many processed foods Monosodium glutamate
present in foods (MSG), hydrolyzed soy
(without providing their protein, autolyzed yeast
own separate flavor) extract, disodium
guanylate or inosinate
Maillard and caramelization reaction

• Activity during lecture

• Refer to the video