Data Presentation

Contents
1. INTRODUCTION
2. TYPES OF DATA
3. METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
4. DATA PRESENTATION METHODS
5. TABULATION
6. GRAPHS
 Introduction

• Data - observations that are obtained from the units under research.

• In statistical language it is also called variable as it is a character, characteristic or

quality that varies.

 SOURCES OF DATA

• An individual researcher or an agency conducting research may directly collect

the data known as primary data.

• The researcher or agency may use already available data that has been collected

by some other agency, known as secondary data.

The main sources for collection of medical data
are:

1. Experiments
2. Surveys
3. Records.
 Experiments

• Experiments are performed in the laboratories of various branches of medical

science like physiology, biochemistry, pharmacology and clinical pathology or in

the hospital wards or in the community.

 Surveys

• carried out for epidemiological studies in the field by trained teams to find the

incidence or prevalence of health or disease situations in a community, such as

incidence of malaria or prevalence of leprosy, or to identify risk factors associated

with disease occurrence.

 Records

• Records are maintained as a routine in registers or books over a long period of

time, for various purposes, such as for vital statistics births, marriages and deaths

and for illnesses in hospitals.

 TYPES OF DATA

The statistical data obtained from the above sources can be divided into two broad
categories:

1. Qualitative data

2. Quantitative data
 Data

Qualitative Quantitative

Nominal Ordinal Discrete Continous

 Qualitative data

• Qualitative data can be in nominal or categorical scale that is represented by

names and can be classified into categories or subgroups of population.

• Examples of nominal data are gender, religion, etc.

e are socioeconomic class, disease severity, grades of malnutrition, etc.

 Quantitative Data

• Quantitative data has a magnitude and the characteristic is measured either on an

interval or on a ratio scale.

• In such classification, there are two variables-the characteristics, such as height

and the frequency, i.e. the number of persons with the same characteristic and in
the same range.
 Discrete
• In discrete data the variable under observation can only have fixed values in a
given range and are integers or whole numbers, e.g. number of family members,
number of white blood cells in a specified volume of blood.
 Continuous
• Continuous data take any value within a given range of numbers. In continuous
data each individual has one measurement from a continuous spectrum or range,
such as body temperature from 35-42°C, height from 150 -160 cm.
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Quantitative Methods-
Interview-
• In this method direct interaction is made between the investigator and the subject
by interview which may be face-to face interview or telephonic interview by using
a form prepared beforehand.
 Questionnaire method-

• In this a self administered questionnaire is given to the subjects either directly or

by post or through internet for online survey.
• A number of subjects can be contacted simultaneously.
Hence, this method requires much less time and manpower but there are other
problems like incomplete coverage as all the subjects may not return the
questionnaire, or may submit incompletely filled up form due to unwillingness or
inability to understand the questions.
Examination-
An important method of collecting medical data and includes anthropometric
measurements general examination and systemic examination pertaining to the
research question under consideration.
Investigation-
This includes laboratory as well as radiological investigations.
The equipment's or machines used should be of good quality and should be
calibrated properly.
Observation-
Here the investigator directly observes the procedure, situation or event according
to a checklist prepared beforehand.
Documents-
Medical records are good source of medical data.
These include the records available with the subjects, records maintained in the
health facilities and records available on public domain.
 Qualitative Method

Case study-
It involves careful and close observation of a community, a group of individuals, or
a problem, event or episode in an individual.
Key informant interview-
A key informant is a person involved actively in the area of research and has
professional background or experience related to the research question or
participants.
In depth interview-
This is different from the interview method of quantitative research by way that
here the interviewer/ investigator does not follow a rigid or fixed form.
Focus group discussion-
Focus group is a gathering of 8-12 people who share some common characteristics
that is likely to generate valuable data for the research question under consideration.
 Data Presentation-
• There are two main methods of presenting frequencies of a variable or
data
1. Tabulation
2. Drawing
 Tabulation

Method of presenting data of a large number of observations.

Preparation of frequency distribution table is the first requirement.
Table can be simple or complex depending upon measurement of single set of
items or multiple sets of items.
Frequency Distribution Table or Frequency Table-
The information is collected in large quantity and the data should be classified and
presented in the form of a frequency distribution table.
The number of persons in each group is called the frequency of that group.
It records how frequently a characteristic or an event occurs in persons of the same
group.
Grouped frequency distribution table for nominal qualitative
data-
Specialist doctors according to gender in a tertiary care hospital

Attribute Men Women Total

Gynaecology and obstetrics 8 12 20
Medicine 16 14 30
Orthopaedics 8 2 10
Paediatrics 9 11 20
Surgery 13 7 30
Total doctors 54 46 110
Grouped frequency distribution table for ordinal qualitative data-

Level of malnutrition among under five children according to gender in a slum

population-

Attribute Girls Boys Total

Malnutrition Grade 1 30 37 67

Grade 2 12 10 22

Grade 3 6 3 9

Grade 4 2 0 2

Total Children 50 50 100

 Frequency distribution table for quantitative data-

Presentation of quantitative data is generally more cumbersome because the

characteristic has a measured magnitude or size as well as the frequency.
The data of variable characteristics may be discrete such as number of children,
number of diseased persons, or continuous such as height, weight, temperature.
Grouped frequency distribution table of discrete quantitative
data

Distribution of study population according to number of family members

Number of family members Frequency of each group

1 10
2 15
3 17
4 19
5 20
Grouped frequency distribution table of continuous quantitative data

Distribution of study population according to height of study subjects

Frequency
Heights of of each
groups in Tally markings group
cm

160-161                 10
162-163                 15
164-165                 17
166-167                 19
168-169                 20
 Cross Table

In this type of table two or more variables are

presented together.
Cross table of two qualitative data
    Nutritional Status  

Gender BP Level Underweight Normal Overweight Obesity 1 Obesity 2 Total

Male Hypertensive 0 60 65 10 10 145
  Normotensive 60 15 60 0 10 145

Female Hypertensive 10 5 30 20 0 65
  Normotensive 45 0 15 5 0 65
Combined Hypertensive 10 65 95 30 10 210
  Normotensive 105 15 75 5 10 210
 Contingency Table-

This is a two way table presenting relationship between two nominal or categorical
variables.
The entries in the cells can be grouped frequency or relative frequency.
Contingency table of two qualitative data

Exposure to smoking in patients with and without lung cancer

Disease Status  
Exposure Status
Disease Not Disease Total
Exposed 75 20 95
Not Exposed 25 80 105

Total
100 100 200
 
 Frequency Distribution Diagrams

frequencies of characteristic can be presented by two kinds of drawings: Graphs and

diagrams.
They may be shown either by lines and dots figures.
Presentation of quantitative, continuous or measured data is through graphs.
The common graphs in use are-
Histogram
Frequency polygon
Frequency curve
Line chart or graph
Cumulative frequency diagram
Scatter or dot diagram
The common diagrams in use are-
Bar diagram
Pie or sector diagram
Pictograph or picture diagram
Map diagram or spot map
 PRESENTATION OR ILLUSTRATION OF QUANTITATIVE DATA

Histogram-
It is a graphical presentation of frequency distribution.
Variable characters of the different groups are indicated on the horizontal line (X-
axis) called abscissa while frequency i.e. number of observations is marked on the
vertical line (Y-axis) called ordinate.
Histogram
 Frequency Polygon

It is again an area diagram of frequency distribution developed over a histogram.

Join the midpoints of class intervals at the height of frequencies, by straight lines.
It gives a polygon.
Frequency polygon is used when two sets of data are to be illustrated on the same
diagram, such as birth, percentage of population showing different haemoglobin
concentration in males and females etc.
Frequency polygon-
 Frequency Curve

When the number of observations is very large and group interval is reduced, the
frequency polygon tends to lose its angular appearance, giving place to a smooth
curve known as frequency curve.
Frequency curve -
 Line Chart or Graph

It shows the trend of an event occurring over a period of time rising, falling or
showing fluctuations, such as of cancer deaths, infant mortality rate, birth rate,
death rate, etc. say from year 1950 to 2000.
Line chart-
 Cumulative Frequency Diagram or Ogive-

Ogive is a graph of the cumulative relative frequency distribution.

To draw this, an ordinary frequency distribution table in a quantitative data has to
be converted into a cumulative frequency table.
 Scatter or XY Diagram-

It is prepared after tabulation in which frequencies of two variables have been

cross classified.
It is a graphic presentation, made to show the nature of correlation between
two variable characters X and In the same person of group such as height and
weight in men age 20 years and it is also called correlation diagram.
Scatter Diagram -
 PRESENTATION OR ILLUSTRATION OF QUALITATIVE
DATA-
Bar Diagram -
It is popular and easy method adopted for visual comparison of the magnitude or
frequencies of different categories of qualitative data.
Simple Bar Diagram-
In this various categories of one characteristic are depicted along with frequencies
or percentages.
Multiple or Compound Bar Diagram-
Here two or more bars are placed together to show comparison between two or
more sets of related groups.
Simple Bar Diagram-
Multiple Bar Chart -
Proportional or Component Bar Diagram -
Here a bar is divided into two or more parts, each part representing a subgroup or
component of the whole bar.
These are used to compare the size or proportion of the different components among
themselves and the relationship between each part and the whole group.
 Pie or Sector Diagram

This is another way of presenting data of qualitative characters such as blood

groups, age groups, sex groups, causes of mortality or social groups in a population.
The frequencies of the groups are shown as different segments in a circle.
Degrees of angle denote the frequency and area of the segment. It gives
comparative difference at a glance.
Size of each angle is calculated by multiplying the class percentage with 3.6, i.e.
360/100 or by the formula
Class frequency/Total observations x 360°
 Pictogram or Picture Diagram

It is a popular method to depict the frequency of the occurrence of events to

common man, such as attacks, deaths, number operated admitted, discharged,
accidents, etc. in a population.
 Map diagram of spot map

These maps are prepared to show geographical distribution of frequencies of

characteristics.
Map diagram of spot map-