Radar Beam Scanning and Tracking

Roll-No 0420160020
Introduction
SCOPE
⬥ Radar Beam Fundamentals and Scanning
⬥ Types of Tracking Radar System
⬥ Angle Tracking
⬥ Monopulse Tracking
⬥ Low Angle Tracking
⬥ Limitations of Tracking Accuracy
⬥ Comparison of Trackers
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 Radar Beam Fundamentals
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and Scanning
 Radar Beam Fundamentals
⬥ Most radiators emit (radiate) stronger radiation in one direction than in
another. A radiator such as this is referred to as anisotropic.
⬥ A standard method allows the positions around a source to be marked so
that one radiation pattern can easily be compared with another.
⬥ The radiations of radar is referred as Radar Beam. There are two types of
beam:
⬦ Main Beam (or main lobe)
⬦ Sidelobes
⬦ Backlobe
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 Radar Beam Fundamentals…
⬥ The main beam (or main lobe) is the region around
the direction of maximum radiation (usually the
region that is within 3 dB of the peak of the main
beam).
⬥ The sidelobes, important parameter used to
characterize radiation patterns, are smaller beams
that are away from the main beam. These sidelobes
are usually radiation in undesired directions which can
never be completely eliminated.
⬥ The sidelobe which is directed opposing the main
beam direction is called backlobe.
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 Beam Width

⬥ The angular range of the antenna

pattern in which at least half of the
maximum power is still emitted is
described as a “beam width”.

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 Conical Scanning
⬥ If the Antenna beam
continuously rotates for
tracking a target, then it is
called conical scanning. Conical
scan modulation is used to find
the position of the target.
Following figure shows an
example of conical scanning.

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 Conical Scanning
⬥ Squint Angle is the angle between beam axis and rotation axis and it is shown in
the above figure. The echo signal obtained from the target gets modulated at a
frequency equal to the frequency at which the Antenna beam rotates.

⬥ The angle between the direction of the target and the rotation axis determines
the amplitude of the modulated signal. So, the conical scan modulation has to
be extracted from the echo signal and then it is to be applied to servo control
system, which moves the Antenna beam axis towards the direction of the
target.

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 Tracking Radar and Types of
2 Tracking Radar System
 Tracking Radar
 A radar not only recognizes the presence of a target, but it
determines the targets location in range and in one or two
angle coordinates.

 As it continues to observe a target over time, the radar can

provide the target’s trajectory or track-and predict where it will
be in the future.
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 Tracking Radar…
 Tracking radar performs the following functions before it starts
the tracking activity.

 Target detection

 Range of the target

 Finding elevation and azimuth angles

 Finding Doppler frequency shift

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 Types of Tracking Radar System
 Single Target Tracker (STT)

 Automatic Detection and Track (ADT)

 Phased Array Radar Tracking

 Track while Scan (TWS)

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 Single Target Tracker (STT)
 This tracker is designed to continuously track a single target at
a relatively rapid data rate.

 The antenna beam of a single-target tracker follows the target

by obtaining an angle-error signal and employing a closed loop
servo system to keep the error signal small. AN/FPQ-6 C-band
long range precision tracking used for instrumentation ranges.

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 Automatic Detection and Track (ADT)
 This performs tracking as part of an air surveillance radar.
 The rate at which the observations are mode depends on the time for
the antenna to make one rotation.
 The ADT, therefore, has lower data rate than that of STT and its
advantage is that it simultaneously tracks a large number of targets.
 Tracking is done open loop in that the antenna position is not
controlled by the processed tracking data as it is in STT.
 Civil air traffic control radar

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 Phased Array Radar Tracking
 A large no. of targets can be held in track with a high data rate by an
electronically steered phased array radar.

 Multiple targets are tracked on a time shared basis under computer

control since the beam of an electronically scanned array can be
rapidly switch from one angular direction to another.

 It combines the rapid update rate of a single- target tracker with the
ability of the ADT to hold many targets in track.
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 Track while Scan (TWS)
 This radar rapidly scans a limited angular sector to maintain tracks
with a moderate data rate, on more than one target within the
coverage of the antenna.

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 A radar can track targets in Range as well as Angle.

 Sometimes, tracking of Doppler freq. shift or the radial velocity is

performed.

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3 Angle Tracking
 Angle Tracking
• The pencil beams of Radar Antenna perform tracking in angle. The axis of
Radar Antenna is considered as the reference direction. If the direction of
the target and reference direction is not same, then there will be angular
error, which is nothing but the difference between the two directions.

• If the angular error signal is applied to a servo control system, then it will
move the axis of the Radar Antenna towards the direction of target. Both the
axis of Radar Antenna and the direction of target will coincide when the
angular error is zero. There exists a feedback mechanism in the Tracking
Radar, which works until the angular error becomes zero.

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 Angle Tracking

• Following are the two techniques, which are used

in angular tracking.
 Sequential Lobing
 Conical Scanning

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 Sequential Lobing
• Sequential lobing is also known as lobe switching or
sequential switching.
• As we understood above, there is generally a difference
between the actual target location and the reference
direction of the tracking radar. This difference is known
as the angular error.
• In sequential lobing, the position of the antenna beam is
switched between two positions. This gives us the
direction and magnitude of the angular error. 22
 Sequential Lobing…
• The method of switching a single beam between two
squinted angular positions to obtain an angle of
measurement is called sequential lobing.
• Though it is possible to use a time-shared antenna
beam to obtain an angle measurement; it’s simpler.
However, it’s not very accurate.
• The polar representation and the rectangular
representation of the antenna beams in the two
switched positions is shown below. 23
 Sequential Lobing…
• Sequential lobing – Polar and Rectangular representations.

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 Sequential Lobing…
• The error obtained from the target being NOT on the boresight is also
shown.

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Figure: Sequential Lobing – Error Signals
 Sequential Lobing…
• The difference in the amplitude between the voltages that we
obtain from the two positions gives the angular displacement of
the target from the boresight.

• The direction in which to move the antenna comes from the

beam that has the larger signal.

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 Conical Scan
• Some older tracking radar uses the
conical scanning principle.
• We can generate a conical scan pattern,
as shown in figure, by using a rotating
feed driven by a motor in the housing at
the rear of the dish. The axis of the radar
lobe is made to sweep out a cone in
space; the apex of this cone is, of course,
at the radar transmitter antenna or
reflector.
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 Conical Scan…
• In sequential lobing four horns and RF switches are use to rotate the
squint beam left, right, up and down.
• This may be replaced by a single feed that radiated a single beam
squinted off axis.
• The squinted feed could be continuously rotated to obtain angle
measurements in two coordinates. This a conical scan radar.

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Conical Scan…

Figure: Block diagram of a Conical Scan Radar 29

 Conical Scan…
• The reference generator has two outputs that extract elevation and
azimuth errors. The echo signal that is received is fed to the receiver from
the antenna via two rotary joints (not shown in the block diagram). One
rotary joint controls the azimuth movement. And the other controls the
elevation movement.

• The receiver is a superheterodyne receiver. The error signal is extracted

after the second detector. Range gate is used to search and lock the
target and continuously track the target.
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4 Monopulse Tracking
 Monopulse Tracking
• A monopulse tracker is defined as one in which information concerning the
angular location of a target is obtained by comparison of signals received in two
or more simultaneous beams.
• A measurement of angle may be made on the basis of a single pulse; hence the
name monopulse.
• In practice, multiple pulses are used to increase:
i) the probability of detection,
ii) improve the accuracy of angle estimate and
iii) provide resolution in Doppler when necessary.

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 Monopulse Tracking…
• Angle measurement is based on the signals that appear simultaneously in more
than one antenna beam; the accuracy of monopulse is not affected by amplitude
fluctuations of the target echo.
• In tracking radar, an angle error signal in two orthogonal angle coordinates that
mechanically drive the boresight of the tracking antenna using a closed-loop
servo system to keep the bore sight positioned in the direction of moving target.
• In radars such as phased array angle measurements can be obtained in an open
loop fashion by calibrating the error-signal voltage in terms of angle.

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Variations of Monopulse Tracking
• Amplitude Comparison Monopulse

• Phase Comparison Monopulse

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 Amplitude Comparison Monopulse
• In this, two overlapping antenna patterns with their main beams
pointed in slightly in different directions are used the two beams are
said to be squinted or offset.
• They might be generated by using two feeds slightly displaced in
opposite directions form focus of a parabolic reflector.

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 Amplitude Comparison Monopulse…
• Here both sum and difference of the two squinted antenna patterns are taken.

Figure: Monopulse antenna patterns

and error signal. The left-hand sketch
in (a) to (c) are in polar coordinates;
right-hand sketches are in rectangular
coordinates. (a) Two squinted antenna
beams; (b) sum pattern of two
squinted beams shown in (a); (c)
difference pattern; (d) error signal as
a function of the angle from
boresight.
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Amplitude Comparison Monopulse…

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 Amplitude Comparison Monopulse…
• The sum pattern is used in transmission and both sum and difference
patterns are used on reception.
• The signal received with the difference pattern propend the magnitude of
the angle error.
• The direction of the angle error is found by comparing the phase of the
difference signal with the phase of sum signal. Signals received from the
sum and difference patterns are amplified separately and combined the
angle error signal.
• The sum signal also provides target detection and range measurement as
well as act as a reference for determining the sign of the angle
measurement. 38
 Amplitude Comparison Monopulse…
• The sum signal also provides target detection and range measurement as well
as act as a reference for determining the sign of the angle measurement.

Figure: Simple block

diagram of the
amplitude-comparison
monopulse in one angle
coordinate. ∑ denotes
the sum channel. ∆
denotes the difference
channel.

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 Phase Comparison Monopulse
• In this, two beams look in the same direction and cover the same regions
of pace rather than be squinted to look in tow slightly different
directions.
• In order for two beams to look in the same direction two antennas have
to be used in the phase comparison menopulse rather than using two
feeds at the focus of a single antenna as is the case for an amplitude-
comparison monopulse.
• The amplitudes of the signals are the same but their phases different.

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 Phase Comparison Monopulse…
• When two antennas spaced a distance d aport receive signal from a
direction with respect to normal to the baseline, the phase difference in
the signals received in two antennas is

Measurement of ΔØ can provide the angle θ to the target.

• The phase comparison monopulse is sometime known as an
interferometer radar.
• Grating lobes and underutilization of apertures.
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 Phase Comparison Monopulse…

Figure: Phase-comparison monopulse in one angle coordinate.

(a) Two antennas radiating identical beams in same direction; (b)
geometry of the signals at the two antennas of (a) when received
from a target at an angle θ, measured with respect to the
perpendicular to the baseline of the two radiators.
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5 Low Angle Tracking
 Low Angle Tracking

• A radar that tracks low elevation angles illuminates the target via two paths.
One is the direct path from radar to target and the other is the reflection
from the earth’s surface.
• This is the equivalent to the radar illuminating two targets, one above the
surface, the other below the surface.
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 Low Angle Tracking
• The effect of glint is quite prevalent here, with errors in the measured
elevation angle of the target. At small angles, (assuming) over a perfectly
reflecting surface, the reflection coefficient from the surface is approximately
1.
• Since they are almost in line, the phase is equal to 180 degrees and the
magnitude is equal to 1. Thus, the amplitudes of the incident signal are equal
to the amplitude of the reflected signal.

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6 Limitations of Tracking Accuracy
 Limitations of Tracking Accuracy
The major effects that determine the accuracy of a tracking radar are as
follows:
• Glint, or angle noise, which affects all tracking, especially at short range.
• Receiver noise, which also affects all radars, and mainly determines tracking
accuracy at long range.
• Amplitude fluctuations of the target echo that bother conical-scan and sequential-
lobbing trackers, but not monopulse.

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7 Comparison of Trackers
 Comparison of Trackers
• The major tracking systems: The Amplitude Comparison Monopulse and the
conical scans can be compared according to the following attributes.
 Signal-to-Noise Ratio. When the target is being tracked, the signal-to-noise
ratio from a monopulse radar is greater than that from a conical-scan radar
since the monopulse antenna views the target at the peak of its sum pattern.
The conical-scan radar views the target at some angle off the peak of the
antenna beam. Thus, the signal-to-noise ratio of monopulse might be from 2 to
4 dB greater than with conical scan.

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 Comparison of Trackers
• Accuracy. The monopulse radar will have greater angle accuracy since its signal-to-noise
ratio is higher (important when accuracy is limited by thermal noise). Also its angle
accuracy is not affected by fluctuations in the amplitude of the echo signal as are
sequential scanning system. Both monopulse and conical-scan systems are degraded by
the wandering of the apparent position of the target caused by glint. Monopulse,
because of its better signal-to-noise ratio, has a better range accuracy than conical scan.
• Complexity. The monopulse radar is the more complex of the two since it requires RF
combining circuitry at the antenna and three receiving channels. Conical scan has only
one receiving channel and uses a single feed, but it has to rotate or nutate antenna
beam at a high speed. Many a tracking radar development started out with monopulse,
but had to switch to conical scan when its size or cost became too large.

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 Comparison of Trackers
• Minimum Number of Pulses. As the name implies, a monopulse radar can perform
an angle measurement in two coordinates on the basis of a single pulse. The conical-
scan trackers require a minimum of four pulses per revolution of the beam to extract
an angle measurement in two coordinates. Generally, the pulse repetition frequency
(prf) is at least 10 times the conical-scan frequency.
• Susceptibility to Electronic Countermeasures. The military conical-scan tracker is
more vulnerable to spoofing countermeasures that take advantage of its conical-scan
frequency. It can also suffer from deliberate amplitude fluctuations. A well-designed
monopulse tracker is much harder to deceive.
• Application. Monopulse trackers should be used when good angle accuracy is
wanted and/or when susceptibility to electronic countermeasures is to be minimized.
When high-performance tracking is not necessary, the conical-scan tracker might be
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used because of its lower cost and reduced complexity.
Conclusion
Question and Answer