Plotting experimental data in graphs and error analysis

Department Of physics
Error:
It is impossible to do an experimental measurement with perfect accuracy. There is always an uncertainty associated
with any measured quantity in an experiment even in the most carefully done experiment and despite using the most
sophisticated instruments. This uncertainty in the measured value is known as the error in that particular measured
quantity. There is no way by which one can measure a quantity with one hundred percent accuracy. In
presenting experimental results it is very important to objectively estimate the error in the measured result.

Types of errors:
Systematic Errors:
Errors which can either be positive or negative are called Systematic errors. They are of following types:

 Instrument errors:
These arise from imperfect design or calibration error in the instrument. Worn off scale, zero error in a weighing
scale are some examples of instrument errors.
Imperfections in experimental techniques:
If the technique is not accurate (for example measuring temperature of human body by placing thermometer
under armpit resulting in lower temperature than actual) and due to the external conditions like temperature,
wind, humidity, these kinds of errors occur
Personal errors:
Errors occurring due to human carelessness, lack of proper setting, taking down incorrect reading are called
personal errors.
These errors can be removed by:
 Taking proper instrument and calibrating it properly.
 Experimenting under proper atmospheric conditions and techniques. Removing human bias as far as possible.

Random Errors:
Errors which occur at random with respect to sign and size are called Random errors.
 These occur due to unpredictable fluctuations in experimental conditions like temperature, voltage supply,
mechanical vibrations, personal errors etc.
 Smallest value that can be measured by the measuring instrument is called its least count. Least count error is the
error associated with the resolution or the least count of the instrument
 count errors can be minimized by using instruments of higher precision/resolution and improving experimental
techniques (taking several readings of a measurement and then taking a mean).

 Errors in a series of Measurements:

Suppose the values obtained in several measurement are a1, a2, a3, …, an.
Arithmetic mean = amean = (a1+ a2 + a3+ … + an)/n

Absolute Error:
The magnitude of the difference between the true value of the quantity and the individual measurement value is
called absolute error of the measurement. It is denoted by |Δa| (or Mod of Delta a). The mod value is always
positive even if Δa is negative. The individual errors are:

Δa1 = a mean - a1, Δa2 = a mean - a2, ……. ,Δ a n = a mean – an

•  Mean absolute error is the arithmetic mean of all absolute errors. It is represented by .

Δa mean = (|Δa1| + |Δa2| +|Δa3| + …. +|Δan|) / n

For single measurement, the value of ‘a’ is always in the range ± Δ

So, a = ± Δ or - Δ< a <+
 
Relative Error: It is the ratio of mean absolute error to the mean value of the quantity measured.

Relative Error = Δ /

Percentage Error: It is the relative error expressed in percentage. It is denoted by δa.

 
δa = (Δ / ) x 100%
Using Excel for Graphical Analysis of Data (Experiment):
Learn to use Excel to explore a number of linear graphical relationships.
An important technique in graphical analysis is the transformation of experimental data to produce a
straight line. If there is a direct, linear relationship between two variable parameters, the data may be fitted to the
equation of line with the familiar form y = mx + b through a technique known as linear regression. Here m represents
the slope of the line, and b represents the y-intercept, as shown in the figure below. This equation expresses the
mathematical relationship between the two variables plotted, and allows for the prediction of unknown values within
the parameters.
• 
The equation for the best-fit line is
Where b= y-intercept
m= slope
=
=

Computer spreadsheets are powerful tools for manipulating and graphing quantitative data. The spreadsheet program
Microsoft Excel will be used for this purpose. To use Excel in order to explore a number of linear graphical
relationships. Please note that although Excel can fit curves to nonlinear data sets, this form of analysis is usually not
as accurate as linear regression.
Simple Linear Plot:
A certain experiment is designed to measure the volume of 1 mole of helium gas at a variety of different
temperatures,
while keeping the gas pressure constant at 758 torr:

 Open the Microsoft Excel©.

 Enter the above data into the first two columns in the spreadsheet.
• Reserve the first row for column labels.
• The x values must be entered to the left of the y values in the spreadsheet. Remember that the independent variable
(the one that you, as the experimenter, have control of) goes on the x-axis while the dependent variable (the
 Highlight the set of data (not the column labels) that you wish to plot (Figure 1).

• Click on Insert > Recommended Charts followed by Scatter (Figure 2).

• Choose the scatter graph that shows data points only, with no connecting lines – the option labeled Scatter with
Only Markers(Figure 3).
• You should now see a scatter plot on your Excel screen, which provides a preview of your graph (Figure 4).

 If all looks well, it is time to add titles and label the axes of our graph
• First, click inside the chart.
• Switch to the Design tab, and click Add Chart Element > Chart Title > Above Chart.
• The graph should be given a meaningful, explanatory title that starts out Y versus X followed by a description of
your system.
• Click on Axis Titles (select Primary Horizontal Axis Title and Primary Vertical Axis Title) to add labels to the x
and
y axes. Note that it is important to label axes with both the measurement and the units used (figure5).
• To change the titles, click the text box for each title, highlight the text and type in your new title (Figure 6).

 Your next step is to add a trend line to the plotted data points. A trend line represents
the best possible linear fit to your data. To do this you first need to "activate" the
graph. Do this by clicking on any one of the data points. When you do this, all the
data points will appear highlighted.
• Click the Chart Elements button next to the upper-right corner of the chart.
• Check the Trend line box.
• Click More Options. This will display the option shown in Figure7.
• Notice that the linear button is already selected. Now select the Display Equation
on Chart box and the Display R-squared value on Chart box. Then click the Close
button
•• Notice
  that the linear button is already selected. Now select the Display Equation on Chart box and the Display R-
squared value on Chart box. Then click the Close button.
 The equation that now appears on your graph is the equation of the fitted trend line. The value gives a measure
of how well the data is fit by the equation. The closer the value is to 1, the better the fit. Generally, values of
0.95 or higher are considered good fits. Note that the program will always fit a trend line to the data no matter how
good or awful the data is. You must judge the quality of the fit and the suitability of this type of fit to your data set.

 Print out a full-sized copy of your prepared graph and attach it to your report. Then record the following
information on your report: 
• the equation of the best-fit trend line to your data
• the slope of the trend line
• the y-intercept of the trend line
• Whether the fit of the line to the data is good or bad, and why.

 By graphing the five measured values, a relationship is established between gas volume and temperature. The graph
contains a visual representation of the relationship (the plot) and a mathematical expression of the relationship (the
equation). It can now be used to make certain predictions.
For example, suppose the 1 mole sample of helium gas is cooled until its volume is measured to be 10.5 L. You are
asked to determine the gas temperature. Note that the value 10.5 L falls outside the range of the plotted data. How can
you find the temperature if it doesn't fall between the known points? There are two ways to do this.

 Method (1): Extrapolate the trend line and estimate where the point on the line is.
• Click on the Layout tab along the top menu, then Trend line > More Trend line Options.
• In the section labeled Forecast enter a number in the box labeled backward, since we want to extend the trend line
the backward x direction. To decide what number to enter, look at your graph to see how far back along the x-axis
you need to go in order to cover the area where volume = 10.5 L. After entering a number, click Close, and the line
on your graph should now be extended in the backward direction.
• Now use your graph to estimate the x value by envisioning a straight line down from y = 10.5 L to the x-axis.
Record this value on your report.

 Method (2): Plug this value for volume into the equation of the trend line and solve for the unknown temperature.
Do this and record your answer on your report. Note that this method is generally more precise than extrapolating
and "eyeballing" from the graph.
 
Model graphs and Analysis for Introduction to Engineering Physics
 Dielectric constant of Air

𝐶× 𝑑
Working Formula : 𝑘= ………………. Eq1
𝜖0𝐴

Slope = Capacitance

C = capacitance of the parallel plate AIR capacitor

= slope of charge Q vs applied electric voltage, E

Charge, 𝑄 = 𝑓𝐶
𝑒𝑟 ………………. Eq2

Where, 𝑪
=
𝒇𝒆𝒓 𝟏
𝟎𝟎 𝒏𝑭= 100 × 10 − 9 𝐹 and 𝑉0= Voltage measured in the multimeter
 Set - up

Voltage control =𝑪
𝒇𝒆𝒓 𝟏
𝟎𝟎𝒏𝑭
and measure, E 𝑉0 = Voltage
Push
Charge measured in the
switch
discharge multimeter
switch
Experimental Data
Analysis:

Capacitance = slope =0.125 nF (for

example only)
 Analysis:
𝐶× 𝑑
𝑘=
𝜖0𝐴

(0.125 × 10 − 9 ) × (3 × 10 − 3 )
𝑘= = 1.05
(8.854 × 10 − 1 2 ) × (400 × 10 − 4 )

Conclusions: The dielectric constant of air is 1.05

 Energy band gap of semiconductor using four-probe method
Working Formula:
Resistivity, 𝜌as a fn of T in a 𝐸𝑔 𝜌𝐶 = 𝑒𝑟𝑝−𝑟𝑜≠
𝑡𝑐𝑎𝑓 𝜌0
semiconductor 𝜌= 𝜌𝐶 ∙ 𝑒 𝑘𝐵.𝑇 ………………. Eq1
𝐸𝑔 10 3
log 𝜌 = log 𝜌𝐶 + 𝐵 ×
2 × 2.303 × 𝑘 × 10 3 𝑇

10 3
Slope of log 𝜌 and plot is
𝑇

𝐸𝑔
m=
2 × 2.303 × 𝑘𝐵 × 10 3

Energy Band Gap,

𝐸𝑔= 𝑚 × 2 × 2.303 × 𝑘𝐵× 10 3 ………………. Eq2
 Working Formula

𝜌0 𝜌0 1 𝑉
𝜌= = = × × 2𝜋𝑠
𝑓 𝑊 /𝑠 6.93 6.93 𝐼

The resistivity can be found as,

1 𝑉
𝜌 =
6.93
×
𝐼
× 2𝜋𝑠 ………………. Eq3

Where,
s = probe distance = 2.4 × 10 − 3 m
𝑽=voltage measured across inner probe

I = applied current = 8 mA = 8× 10 −3 mA. kB = 8.617 × 10−5 eV/K

 Set-up

Current/Temp Voltage
display measure
 Experimental Data
I = 8 mA; s= 2.4 × 10 − 3 m
Resistivity, 1000
Sl Temp, T Voltage, V 𝜌 = 1 𝑉
× 2𝜋𝑠 log 10 𝜌
6.93 𝐼
T
Unit °C mV Ohm.m K-1 Ohm.m
30
35
40
OR
(follow any one)
Analysis:

Plot line and

Take slope
ONLY at
high- Temp
data
Energy Band Gap, 𝐸 =𝑔 𝑚 ×
2 × 2.303 × 𝑘𝐵× 10 3𝐸= 𝑚 × 2 × 2.303 × 8.617 × 10−5 × 10 3 eV
𝑔
 Analysis:

Energy Band Gap, 𝐸𝑔= 𝑚 × 2 × 2.303 × 𝑘𝐵× 10 3

𝐸𝑔= 𝑚 × 2 × 2.303 × 8.617 × 10−5 × 10 3 eV

Conclusions: The band gap of the given material is Eg = ……. eV

Hall Effect Experiment
 Working Formula

Hall Coefficient, 𝑉𝐻 𝑡
× 𝑅𝐻 = …………. Eq1
𝐵 𝐼

Carrier concentration,

n= 1 = 1
𝑒 × 𝑅𝐻 (1.609 × 10 − 1 9 ) × 𝑅𝐻

.………. Eq2

where,
𝑉𝐻= Hall voltage measured t = thickness =0.5 mm = 0.5 × 10 − 3 m
I = applied current = (5 – 14) × 10 − 3 A 𝐵 = Applied magnetic field
Set-up
Gaussmeter
(measures Magnetic field, B) B
~ 1500 Gauss

Applied Current, I

Hall Voltage, VH

Magnet control
Current

Voltage
 Experimental Data

Sl Current, I Hall Voltage, V H 𝑉𝐻 I

Unit mA mV Ohm
30
35
40

DON’T use this for

calculation
 Analysis

Take slope
and
Use this for
calculation

𝑉𝐻
Slope, m =
𝐼
 Analysis
If used, 𝐵 = Applied magnetic field = 1600 Gauss = 1600 × 10 − 4 Tesla

Hall Coefficient,
𝑉𝐻 𝑡 0.5 × 10 − 3
𝑅𝐻= × =𝑒𝑝𝑜×𝑙𝑠 𝑚 3 /𝐶
𝐼 𝐵 1600 × 10 − 4

Carrier concentration,
1 1
n= =
𝑒× 𝑅𝐻 (1.609 × 10 − 1 9 ) × 𝑅𝐻 /m 3

Conclusions:
• Carrier type is p-type/n-type
• Hall coefficient, RH =
• Carrier concentration, n =