Chapter 2

Atoms, Molecules,
and Ions
Jim Geiger
Cem 151
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Atomic Theory of Matter
The theory of atoms:
Original to the Greeks
Leuccipus, Democritus and
Lucretius
(Aristotle thought they were nuts)
John Dalton (1805-1808)
Revived the idea and made
it science by measuring
the atomic weights of 21
elements.
That’s the key thing
because then you can see Atoms,
how elements combine. Molecules,
and Ions
 Dalton’s Postulates

Each element is composed of

extremely small particles called atoms.

Tiny balls make up the world

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Dalton’s Postulates

All atoms of a given element are identical

to one another in mass and other
properties, but the atoms of one element
are different from the atoms of all other
elements.

Atoms,
O N Molecules,
and Ions
 Dalton’s Postulates
Atoms of an element are not changed into
atoms of a different element by chemical
reactions; atoms are neither created nor
destroyed in chemical reactions. (As far as
Dalton knew, they couldn’t be changed at all).

O N O N

Red O’s stay Os and blue N’s stay Atoms,

N’s. Molecules,
and Ions
 Dalton’s Postulates
Compounds are formed when atoms of
more than one element combine; a
given compound always has the same
relative number and kind of atoms.

H N
NH3
ammonia
Chemistry happens when the balls
rearrange Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Law of Constant Composition
Joseph Proust (1754–1826)

• Also known as the law of definite proportions.

• The elemental composition of a pure
substance never varies.
• The relative amounts of each element in a
compound doesn’t vary.

H N
NH3
ammonia Atoms,
Molecules,
ammonia always has 3 H and 1 N. and Ions
Law of Conservation of Mass

The total mass of substances present at

the end of a chemical process is the
same as the mass of substances
present before the process took place.

3H2 + N2 2NH3
ammonia Atoms,
Molecules,
The atoms on the right all appear on the left and Ions
 The Electron

• Streams of negatively charged particles were found

to emanate from cathode tubes.
• J. J. Thompson (1897).
• Maybe atoms weren’t completely indivisible after all.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 The Electron

Thompson measured the charge/mass ratio of the electron to be

1.76  108 coulombs/g.
How? by manipulating the magnetic and electrical fields and
observing the change in the beam position on a fluorescent screen.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Millikan Oil Drop Experiment
measured charge of electron Univ.
Chicago (1909).

How?
Vary the electric field (E) until the drops
stop.
Vary the charge (q) on the drop with more
X-rays. Get a multiple of 1.6x10-19
Coulombs. The charge of 1 electron.

Eq = mg
You set E, measure mass of drop
(m) & know g. Find q.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Radioactivity:
• The spontaneous emission of radiation
by an atom.
• First observed by Henri Becquerel.
• Also studied by Marie and Pierre Curie.
“rays” not particles
particles of some sort.

Stuff comes out of atoms, “subatomic particles”

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Radioactivity
• Three types of radiation were discovered by Ernest
Rutherford:
  particles, attracted to negative electrode, so they have a positive
charge, much more mass than negative stuff (turn out to be He
nuclei)
  particles, attracted to positive electrode, so
they have a negative charge, 1000s of times less massive (turn out to
be electrons coming from nucleus).
  rays, no charge, no mass,

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
The Atom, circa 1900:

• “Plum pudding” model, put

forward by Thompson.
• Positive sphere of matter with
negative electrons imbedded in it.
• most of the volume = positive
stuff because most of the mass is
positive
• Expectation: density more or
less uniform throughout.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Discovery of the Nucleus

Ernest Rutherford
shot  particles at a
thin sheet of gold foil
and observed the
pattern of scatter of
the particles.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 The Nuclear Atom
Virtually all the particles went
straight through
Most of the atom essentially
empty
A few particles deflected, some
straight back.
A very small part of the atom is
very dense, impenetrable.
The mass must be concentrated.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 The Nuclear Atom
• Rutherford postulated a very small, dense
nucleus with the negative electrons around
the outside of the atom.
• Most of the volume of the atom is empty
space.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Other Subatomic Particles

• Protons were discovered by Rutherford

in 1919. Have the positive charge in the
atom.
• Neutrons were discovered by James
Chadwick in 1932. Have mass like
proton, but no charge.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Subatomic Particles
• Protons and electrons are the only particles that
have a charge.
• Protons and neutrons have essentially the same
mass.
• The mass of an electron is so small we ignore it.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Symbols of Elements

Elements are symbolized by one or two

letters.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Atomic Number

All atoms of the same element have the same

number of protons:
The atomic number (Z)
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Atomic Mass

The mass of an atom in atomic mass units

(amu) is approximately the total number of
protons and neutrons in the atom.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Isotopes:
• Elements are defined by the number of protons.
• Atoms of the same element with different masses.
• Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons.

11 12 13 14
# 6C 6C 6C 6C
Neutrons 5 6 7 8

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Atomic Mass

Atomic and molecular masses can be measured with great

accuracy with a mass spectrometer. Heavier ion turns less in the
Atoms,
magnetic field (magnetic moments of ions similar). Molecules,
and Ions
 Average Mass
• Because in the real world all the
elements exist as mixtures of isotopes.
• And we measure many many atoms at
a time
“Natural abundance”
• Average mass is calculated from the
isotopes of an element weighted by
their relative abundances.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Average mass, example
Isotope abundance Atomic mass
Mg
24
78.99% 23.98504 amu
Mg
25
10.00% 24.98584 amu
Mg
26
11.01% 25.98259 amu
Given the above data, what is the average
molecular mass of magnesium (Mg)?

.7899(23.98504)+0.1000(24.98584)+0.1101(25.98259)=
18.95 + 2.499 + 2.861 = 24.31
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Periodic Table:

• A systematic
catalog of
elements.
• Elements are
arranged in order
of atomic number.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Periodicity

When one looks at the chemical properties of

elements, one notices a repeating pattern of
reactivities.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Periodic Table

• The rows on the periodic chart are periods.

• Columns are groups.
• Elements in the same group have similar chemical
Atoms,
Molecules,
properties. and Ions
 Groups

These five groups are known by their names.

You gotta know these very well (except for the
chalcogens, its far less common).
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Periodic Table

Nonmetals are on the upper right-hand corner of

the periodic table (with the exception of H). Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Periodic Table

Metalloids border the stair-step line (with Atoms,

the exception of Al and Po). Molecules,

and Ions
 Periodic Table

Atoms,
Molecules,
Metals are on the left side of the chart. and Ions
 Elements of life

• Elements required for living organisms (pretty much all organisms).

• Red, most abundant
• blue, next most abundant
• Green, trace amounts.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Chemical Formulas
The subscript to the right
of the symbol of an
element tells the number
of atoms of that element
in one molecule of the
compound.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Molecular Compounds
Molecular compounds
are composed of
molecules and almost
always contain only
nonmetals.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Diatomic Molecules

These seven elements occur naturally as

molecules containing two atoms.
You should know these guys.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Types of Formulas
• Empirical formulas give the lowest
whole-number ratio of atoms of each
element in a compound.
• Molecular formulas give the exact
number of atoms of each element in a
compound.
Example: ethane:

Empirical formula: CH3

Molecular formula: C2H6 Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Types of Formulas
• Structural formulas show the
order in which atoms are
bonded.
• Perspective drawings also
show the three-dimensional
array of atoms in a
compound.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Ions

• When atoms lose or gain electrons, they become

ions. Often they lose or gain electrons to have the
same number of electrons as the nearest noble gas.
 Cations are positive and are formed by elements on the left
side of the periodic chart.
 Anions are negative and are formed by elements on the right Atoms,
side of the periodic chart. Molecules,
and Ions
 Mono-atomic ions

metals nonmetals
• Metals usually become cations (+)
• Nonmetals usually become anions (-)
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Ionic compounds
• A metal will give up electrons to a nonmetal
forming a cation (+) (the metal), and an anion
(-) (the nonmetal).
Na + Cl Na+ + Cl- NaCl
Mg + 2Cl Mg2++2Cl- MgCl2

Note, everybody gains or loses electrons to

be like the nearest noble gas.
Compounds are always electrically neutral!!
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Writing Formulas

• Because compounds are electrically neutral,

one can determine the formula of a
compound this way:
 The charge on the cation becomes the subscript
on the anion.
 The charge on the anion becomes the subscript
on the cation.
 If these subscripts are not in the lowest whole-
number ratio, divide them by the greatest common
factor.
Mg 2+
O 2-
MgO Not Mg2O2 Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Common Cations
* *
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*

*You should know these. Atoms,

Molecules,
and Ions
 Common Anions

* *
* *
** *
* * *
* * *ClO
* * 2 Chlorite

*ClO
**
Hypochlorite

*
*
*
*
*
*You should know these. Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 More polyatomic anions
(the “ites”)
SCN- Thiocyanate

NO2- Nitrite
HSO3 bisulfite
HSO4 bisulfate
HPO42- Hydrogen phosphate
H2PO4 Dihydrogen phosphate
ClO- hypochlorite
ClO2- chlorite
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature

• When there are only two oxyanions

involving the same element:
The one with fewer oxygens ends in -ite
• NO2− : nitrite; SO32− : sulfite
The one with more oxygens ends in -ate
• NO3− : nitrate; SO42− : sulfate

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Patterns in Oxyanion
Nomenclature
When there are more than two:
• The one with the second fewest oxygens ends in -ite
 ClO2− : chlorite
• The one with the second most oxygens ends in -ate
 ClO3− : chlorate
• The one with the fewest oxygens has the prefix hypo- and ends in -ite
 ClO− : hypochlorite
• The one with the most oxygens has the prefix per- and ends in -ate
 ClO4− : perchlorate

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Inorganic Nomenclature
• Write the name of the cation.
• If the anion is an element, change its
ending to -ide; if the anion is a
polyatomic ion, simply write the name of
the polyatomic ion.
• If the cation can have more than one
possible charge, write the charge as a
Roman numeral in parentheses.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Examples
naming inorganic compounds
• Write the name of the cation.
• If the anion is an element, change its ending to -ide; if the anion is a
polyatomic ion, simply write the name of the polyatomic ion.
• If the cation can have more than one possible charge, write the charge
as a Roman numeral in parentheses.
NaCl sodium chloride
NH4NO3 ammonium nitrate
Fe(SO4) Iron(II) sulfate
KCN potassium cyanide
RbOH Rubidium hydroxide
LiC2H3O2 lithium acetate
NaClO3 sodium chlorate
NaClO4 sodium perchlorate
Atoms,
K2CrO4 potassium chromate Molecules,
and Ions
NaH Sodium hydride
 Examples
naming inorganic compounds
• Write the name of the cation.
• If the anion is an element, change its ending to -ide; if the anion is a
polyatomic ion, simply write the name of the polyatomic ion.
• If the cation can have more than one possible charge, write the charge
as a Roman numeral in parentheses.
NaCl sodium chloride
potasium permanganate KMnO4
Calcium carbonate CaCO3
Calcium bicarbonate Ca(HCO3)2
ammonium dichromate NH4(Cr2O7)
potassium phosphate (K)3PO3
Lithium oxide Li2O (O2- is the anion)
sodium peroxide Na2O2 (O22- is the anion) Atoms,
Molecules,
Calcium sulfide CaS and Ions
 Hydrogen

• H can be cation or anion

• H- hydride
• H+ (the cation of an inorganic compound)
makes an acid, naming different.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Acid Nomenclature
• If the anion in the acid
ends in -ide, change
the ending to -ic acid
and add the prefix
hydro- :
 HCl: hydrochloric acid
 HBr: hydrobromic acid
 HI: hydroiodic acid

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Acid Nomenclature

• If the anion in the acid ends in -ite, change the

ending to -ous acid:
Atoms,
 HClO: hypochlorous acid Molecules,
 HClO2: chlorous acid and Ions
 Acid Nomenclature

• If the anion in the acid ends in -ate, change the ending to -ic acid:
 HClO3: chloric acid
 HClO4: perchloric acid
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Nomenclature of Binary
Compounds
• The less electronegative
atom is usually listed
first.
• A prefix is used to
denote the number of
atoms of each element
in the compound (mono-
is not used on the first
element listed, however.)
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Nomenclature of Binary
Compounds
• The ending on the more
electronegative element is
changed to -ide.

 CO2: carbon dioxide

 CCl4: carbon tetrachloride

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Nomenclature of Binary
Compounds
If the prefix ends with a
or o and the name of the
element begins with a
vowel, the two
successive vowels are
often merged into one:

N2O5: dinitrogen pentoxide

not: dinitrogen pentaoxide
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Ionic Bonds
Ionic compounds (such as NaCl) are
generally formed between metals and
nonmetals.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions