DACTYLOSCOPY

The Science of Fingerprints

by:
Hermogenes P. Malagamba
 HISTORY OF FINGERPRINTING
 The earliest dated prints of the ridges of the skin on
human hands and feet were made about 4,000
years ago during the pyramid building era in Egypt.
In addition, one small portion of palm print, not
known to be human, has been found impressed in
hardened mud at a 10,000-year old site in Egypt.
 It was common practice for the Chinese to use
inked fingerprints on official documents, land sales,
contracts, loans and acknowledgments of debts.
The oldest existing documents so endorsed date
from the 3rd century BC, and it was still an effective
practice until recent times. Even though it is
recorded that
the Chinese used their fingerprints to establish identity
in courts in litigation over disputed business dealings,
researchers fail to agree as to whether the Chinese
were fully aware of the uniqueness of a fingerprint or
whether the physical contact with documents had
some spiritual significance.

The Chinese Fingerprinting

 The first documented interest in the skin's ridges in the
western world, a paper written in 1684 by an
Englishman, Dr. Nehemiah Grew, was mainly of an
anatomical nature. A small number of other academics
from various European countries also made
anatomical studies of the skin.
 Professor Marcello Malpighi, a plant morphologist at
the University of Bologna, performed research similar
to Grew's and published similar findings in his 1686
publication De Extemo Tactus Organo. This
anatomical treatise, though less detailed about the
surface of the hand than that of Dr Crew, delves
further beneath the surface. Malpighi's anatomical
work was so outstanding that one of the layers of the
skin was named :stratum Malpighi" after him.
 It was not until 1798, however, that J C Mayer of
Germany theorized that the arrangements of friction
ridges were unique. In 1823, Professor Johannes
Evangelist Purkinje published the most detailed
description of fingerprints to have appeared anywhere
up to that time. Professor Purkinje's thesis entitled A
Commentary on the Physiological Examination of the
Organs of Vision and the Cutaneous System
describes, with illustrations, nine fingerprint patterns
classified in Latin. From his illustrations, it can be seen
that the Latin classifications refer to what Henry would
later name arches, tented arches, loops, wholes and
twinned loops. Purkinje's research was purely
anatomical, and he made no mention of individuals
being identified by the patterns that he described.
However, he recommended further research, and
others soon took up his challenge.
 Dr. Nehemiah Grew

However, it was not until 1858 that the first practical

application of the science was made, when an
English administrator in India, Sir William Herschel,
commenced placing the inked palm impressions
and, later, thumb impressions of some members of
the local population on contracts.
 These prints were used as a form of signature on
the documents because of the high level of illiteracy
in India and frequent attempts at forgery. Herschel
also began fingerprinting all prisoners in jail.
The greatest advances in fingerprint science in the
late 19th and early 20th centuries were probably
made by Dr Henry Faulds, a Scottish missionary
doctor of the United Presbyterian Church. Faulds
first became interested in fingerprints after 1874
while working at the hospital he established in
Tsukiji, Tokyo, Japan. After careful experiment and
observation, he became convinced that fingerprint
patterns did not change, that the fingerprint patterns
on the fingers where highly variable and that
superficial injury did not alter them, they returned to
their former design as the injury healed.
 In a letter written to Nature in October
1880, Faulds relates how he took
many sets of fingerprints and palm
prints and studied them, as Grew had
done, with a botanical lens. He further
described the pattern formations on
Sir William the fingers, referred to "loops" and
Herschel "whorls" and stating how good sets of
fingerprints may be.
obtained by the use of "a common slate or smooth
board of any kind, or a sheet of tin, spread over very
thinly with printer's ink. This technique, still in use
today, appears to be a botanical technique called
nature-printing
Fauld's most important conclusion was that fingerprints
do not change and that fingermarks (that is, latent
prints) left on objects by bloody or greasy fingers "may
lead to the scientific identification of criminals".
Herschel's main role as a fingerprint pioneer lies
in the area of the immutability of ridged skin also
mentioned by Faulds. Throughout his life, Herschel
took his own fingerprints and noted that no change
had occurred in them in over 50 years. He also had a
small collection of about 20 sets of fingerprints and
used his technique of hand printing to detect forgeries
of legal documents. The fingerprints taken from
prisoners were also of great interest to him, and he
had the opportunity to see the same prisoners
 fingerprinted several times over a number of years
with no change occurring in their fingerprints.
Although his interest in fingerprints predates that of
Faulds, Herschel did not make his feelings known and
did not suggest that he had developed a method of
registering and identifying criminals, nor did he
foresee any crime scene application as Faulds had
done. In 1892, a noted English scientist of
the time, Sir Francis Galton, published
an accurate and in-depth study of the
fingerprinting science that included an
attempt at a system of fingerprint
classification to facilitate the handling
of large collections of fingerprints.
Sir Francis Galton Although Galton's work proved to be
 sound and became the foundation of modern
fingerprint science and technology, his approach to
classification was inadequate, and it was to be others
who were to successfully apply his work.
 Juan Vucetich, an Argentinian police officer, research
the science of fingerprints, corresponded with Galton,
then devised his own system of fingerprint
classification, which he called "icnofalagometrico".
This system was put into practice in September 1891,
and in March 1892, Vucetich opened the first
fingerprint bureau at San Nicholas, Buenos Aires.
Within a short time of the bureau being set up, the first
conviction by means of fingerprint evidence in a
murder trial was obtained.
 . In June 1892 at Necochea, Francisca Rojas claimed
that she had been brutally attacked and her two
children murdered by a neighboring ranch worker
named Velasquez. Velasquez was arrested but
refused to confess to the murder of the two children.
Nine days after the crime, a search of the crime
scene was carried out and a number of fingerprints in
blood were found on a door post of the woman's hut.
The post was taken to the fingerprint bureau for
comparison with the inked fingerprint impressions of
Velasquez. They were not identical, but the blood
impressions were found to be identical with those of
Rojas. When confronted with this evidence, Rojas
confessed to the murder of her children, and in July
1892 she was found guilty of their murder and
sentenced to life imprisonment .
 An Englishman, Sir Edward Henry, who had been
given tuition in fingerprints by Galton, devised a
workable classification system independently of
Vucetich and implemented it in India in 1897. Henry
published his book Classification and Uses of
Fingerprints in 1900.
 In 1901, Henry was appointed Assistant
Commissioner of Police at New Scotland Yard and
began to introduce his fingerprint system into that
institution. By the end of that year, the Fingerprint
Office at New Scotland Yard was fully functional,
the first British court conviction by fingerprints being
obtained in 1902. Approximately 10 years after the
publication of Henry's book, his classification
system was being used by police forces and prison
authorities throughout the English-speaking world.
 Friction Ridge Skin

Only the hairless parts of the body ---- the

Sir Edward inner surfaces of the hands and the soles
Henry of the feet ---- are covered with patterns
formed by raised ridges of skin known as
friction or papillary ridges. The study of
fingerprints, or dactyloscopy, forms only
one privileged section of the wider of
lophoscopy: dactyloscopy
 is the more widely used section in practice even though
prints from the soles of the feet are as characteristic as
fingerprints, they are less often used for identification
purposes due to their low rate of occurrence. The patterns
formed by the papillary ridges are important since they are
already formed in the fetus by the fourth month of
pregnancy and they do not change until death. These
patterns cannot be altered, except by accident, mutilation, or
very serious skin disease, as they are formed in deep layers
of the dermis.

The skin consists of two main layers: the outer skin or
epidermis, and the inner or true skin, known the dermis. The
epidermis is constantly being worn away and replaced by
new skin generated by the upper layer of the dermis - a
papillary layer (stratum mucusom) which is the source of the
ridges known as 'papillary ridges'. The sweat glands, located
in the dermis, discharge sweat at the skin surface through
sweat pores found at the top of the ridges.
Structure of skin showing friction ridges and
pores connected to sweat glands
 Such pore holes are critical to the production of
latent prints since sweat reaches the surface of the
hand and efficiently coats the tops of the fingerprint
ridges with sweat.  Sweat glands serve as small
chemical reservoirs and contain a variety of water-
soluble chemical compounds, produced or stored by
the body. The dermal layer of the skin also contains
the nerves of touch which terminate at the underside
of the epidermis. The epidermis contains no nerves
but does contain nerve endings. Fingerprint patterns
are not formed at the surface of the skin but are
determined by the arrangement of various elements,
such as sweat glands, nerves, and blood vessels
found below the surface of the skin. Sebaceous
glands and hair follicles are found in the dermal layer
of other skin surfaces but are absent in friction skin.
 Should the top layer of skin suffer any injury, the
ridges grow back after healing in the exact pattern
they had before. Therefore, superficial cuts or
abrasions alter fingerprint characteristics only
temporarily. If the injury reaches deep into the dermis
and destroys the dermal papillae, then growth of new
epidermal cells is impaired and a permanent scar is
created.
Fingerprint detail is unique and individual for a given
finger, even if two fingerprints may be similar, as is the
case with identical twins, since the detail in a
fingerprint is formed in an accidental manner during
gestation. Wilder and Wentworth followed by
Cummins and Midlo were pioneers in the study of
ridge morphology and gave numerous indications on
the formation of papillary ridges. From the third month
of foetal life, bumps or points develop at
 variable rates on the tactile surfaces, with each
point containing a pore. These fuse together as
lines to give the papillae. The general pattern is
influenced by heredity, but this is not the case for
papillary minutiae as these are the result of stress
and variable pressure on the tactile surfaces when
the points fuse into lines. The ridge characteristics
that make fingerprints unique are known as
minutiae, Galton points, characteristic points or
points of
identification.                                                           
                                      
Cross section of a friction ridge
Fingerprint Classification
& Identification

Introduction
 Class characteristics of friction ridge prints are those
characteristics that can be possessed by more than
one print. Even though a class characteristic may be
possessed by millions of prints, it can still be of value to
the individualization or identification process. This is so
because such characteristics reduce the population of
prints that must be effectively eliminated before a
condition of identity or common source for two prints
can be stated with certainty. The class characteristics
of friction ridge skin extend to many factors other than
digit or palm, or toe or sole, and the definable pattern
type. Patterns of the same type, by definition, may
appear quite different. Thus it is not necessary to
consider only whether a pattern is a loop, for instance,
but also the size of the
 loop, the presence or absence of converging ridges, the ridge
count, the degree of the slope of the pattern, and even the
amount of curvature that may be present.
The individualizing characteristics of friction skin are those
features of the ridges which make it possible to characterize or
identify a particular print as having been made by a particular
person. These characteristics are considered with respect to
their location, general appearance, orientation, and
interrelationship when comparison is made between two prints.
In fingerprinting, classification and identification are
distinct concepts. The two functions may and often are
performed by different personal. In some police departments,
the division of labor may be so sharp that a person skilled in
fingerprint classification may not be qualified to identify
suspects based on fingerprint examinations. The examination
may be conducted manually or by computer (AFIS) followed by
visual comparison .
Fingerprint Pattern
Classification
 The classification of fingerprints into distinct groups
based on general similarities allows the fingerprint
examiner to search for an unidentified fingerprint
within a specific section of the fingerprint file rather
than having to search the whole file.
There are numerous fingerprint classification
systems in use throughout the world today. These
systems are all based on three fundamental ridge
formations described by Purkinje, Galton, Vucetich
and Henry. They are the arch, the loop - radial and
ulnar, and the whorl.
 CLASSIFICATION PATTERNS

ARCH LOOP WHORL

RIDGE ENDING BIFURCATION DOT (or ISLAND)

 Individuals generally have a mixture of
pattern types on their fingertips, with some
correlation between the left and right hands.
There is also evidence that the general
fingerprint pattern may be genetically
determined. While the loop pattern is the
most common pattern, classification of
individuals by assigning a pattern type to
each of the ten fingers in an ordered fashion,
serves as a first line of differentiation,
however, no such classification is likely to be
unique.
TYPES OF FINGERPRINT
PATTERNS
PLAIN ARCH
TENTED ARCH
PLAIN LOOP
PLAIN LOOP
WHORL
CENTRAL POCKET LOOP
LATERAL POCKET LOOP
TWINNED LOOP
 Loops constitute between 60 and 70 per cent of the
patterns encountered. In a loop pattern, one or
more of the ridges enters on either side of the
impression, recurves, touches or crosses the line of
the glass running from the delta to the core, and
terminates or tends to terminate on or in the
direction of the side where the ridge or ridges
entered. There is one delta. On the right you will
see a loop pattern. You will notice that it has one
delta (shown in the blue box) and a core (shown in
the red box). By definition the existence of a core
and one delta makes this pattern a loop.

Loops are classified not only by the fact that they

have one delta and one core but also by something
called a ridge count. Loops are two kinds, 'radial' &
 'ulnar', named after the radius and ulna, the two
bones in the forearm. The radius joins the hand on
the same side as the thumb, and the ulna on the
same side as the little finger.

 A Loop Pattern
 The distinction between Ulnar and Radial loops
depends on which hand the loop is found on. In the
image at left the core pattern area (noted in red)
tends to come in from the left and go back out the
left. Hold your left hand up to the screen and note
that your little finger is on the left, which is the
direction that the pattern tends to come in from and
go back out to. Since this is towards your little
finger, and by virtue of that towards your Ulnar
bone in your arm, this makes the loop an Ulnar
loop.
 Now, if you were to place your right hand up to the
screen and make the same comparison you would
find that the pattern area now tends to come in and
 go out towards your thumb. It so happens that the
radial bone in your arm is on your thumb side so
now this loop would be considered a radial loop.
Obviously to make the distinction between these
two types of loops you have to know on which
hand they appear because if a loop pattern is an
Ulnar loop on the right hand, then by default it will
be a Radial loop if found on the left hand.
Radial loops are not very common. Most of the
time if you find a radial loop on a person it will
usually be on the index fingers.
A Radial Loop Pattern
 Between 25 and 35 per cent of the patterns
encountered consist of whorls. In a whorl, some
of the ridges make a turn through at least one
circuit. Any fingerprint pattern which contains 2 or
more delta's will be a whorl pattern. In the
scheme of classification you can make the
assumption that if a pattern contains no delta's
then it is an arch, if it contains one (and only one)
delta it will be a loop and if it contains 2 or more it
will always be a whorl. If a pattern does contain
more than 2 delta's it will always be an accidental
whorl
 THE WHORLS

CENTRAL DOUBLE
PLAIN ACCIDENTAL
POCKET LOOP
 As with any whorl there must be more than 1 valid
delta or else it is a loop. If you look at image A 
you should be able to identify the two delta's. If
not then look at image B and you will see that
they are displayed in the red boxes. The technical
definition of a plain whorl is a whorl which consists
of one or more ridges which make or tend to
make a complete circuit, with two delta's, between
which an imaginary line is drawn and at least one
recurving ridge within the inner pattern area is cut
or touched. 
 Notice the inner area of the pattern, that is the
area which tends to form a circle? This is what
you would call the inner pattern area and it is what
make a whorl look like a whorl. Okay, now looking
  
THE PLAIN WHORLS

 A B C
 at the specific ridges that are making or trying to
make the circle lets say we were to draw an
imaginary line between the two delta's (the red line
in image C) then we can see that this line does
intersect the same lines or line that tend to form
the circle.
 Alright now lets take a closer look so maybe this
will become more clear about what is sufficient
and what is not sufficient to be a plain whorl. Take
a look at image D and you can see the inner
pattern area in yellow that forms or tends to form
the circle part of the loop.
 Notice now that if we draw a line from delta-to-
delta we do not intersect the lines that are forming
the circle? The same thing is true for image E.
D E F
 and see if you can determine the inner pattern, that
being the ridges that form or tend to form a circle.
Can you see that if a line is drawn again from
delta-to-delta that no lines that form the circle are
intersected?
Now look at image F and see if you can identify the
ridges that are forming or tending to form the circle
or inner pattern. Notice now that when we draw a
line from delta-to-delta that this inner pattern, or
the lines forming the circle are intersected? Image
D and image E are examples of Central Pocket
whorls. Image F is a plain whorl.
 This is the first part of identifying a particular whorl.
In this process we merely identified the pattern
type. In this case we have identified what it takes
to be a plain whorl.
 CENTRAL POCKET WHORLS
 A central pocket whorl consists of at least one
recurving ridge, or an obstruction at right angles to
the line of flow, with two deltas, between which
when an imaginary line is drawn, no recurving ridge
within the pattern area is cut or touched.

G H I
 If you look at the pattern area of the three images
at left you will notice that the actual lines that make
a "circle" are very close to the centre and there are
not very many of them, in fact only about two or
three on Image G and about the same on image H.
To make the determination of the type of
pattern we must draw an imaginary line between
the two deltas that appear on the print. In image I I
have drawn a red line to act as the imaginary line
between the two deltas and if you study this you will
see that the ridges that form the inner pattern are
not crossed by this imaginary line. This makes it a
central pocket whorl by definition. If the ridges of
the inner pattern were crossed then this would be a
plain whorl.
A double loop whorl consists of two separate and
distinct loop formations with two separate and
distinct shoulders and two deltas.

CENTRAL
PLAIN WHORL DOUBLE LOOP
POCKET
 Lets looks at some comparisons between a central
pocket whorl and the other types: When compared
side-by-side the differences become a little more
obvious. If you look at image G you can see that
the imaginary line (in red) does not cut across any
ridges which form the inner pattern area. But if you
look at image H you can see that the imaginary line
does, in fact, cut across the inner pattern area (or
the ridges which form or tend to form a circle). The
pattern in image I might at first glance be taken for
a plain whorl because if you were to draw the
imaginary line it would cut the pattern area, but you
will notice there are two core area's in this pattern,
which are shown by the red pointers. Because of
the two cores this pattern is a double loop whorl.
 DOUBLE LOOP  WHORLS
A double loop whorl consists of two separate
and distinct loop formations with two separate and
distinct shoulders and two deltas.

J K L
 The technical definition for this pattern type is fairly
straight-forward. There must be to separate and
distinct shoulders for each core. If you look at
images J and image K you can clearly see that
there appears to be two separate "loops" inside of
this whorl. In most cases this means that the
pattern will most likely be a double loop whorl but
not always.
 The problems lies in the "separate and distinct"
shoulder requirement sometimes. If you look at
image L you can clearly see that there are separate
and distinct shoulders created and shown in the red
and blue. The shoulders of each "core" must
comprise separate lines. This means that they can't
be the same obviously.
 By using a little creative editing I have now
changed image L and the way it appears in
image M. The significant change is that I have
edited this image so that both apparent shoulders
(cores) now use the same line (indicated in red).
Because they both now use the same line to form
the shoulders of each core this is no longer a
valid double loop whorl.
 If there is a problem with identifying a double loop
whorl it is probably because of the failure to either
identify that there is a separate and distinct
shoulder to each core. If the shoulder is formed
by the same recurving line then it is not valid.
 Another issue comes into play and that is if the
core or shoulder is actually valid itself.

M
 ARCHES

Arches represent only about 5 per cent

of the fingerprint patterns encountered. In arch
patterns, the ridges run from one side to the other
of the pattern, making no backward turn. There is
ordinarily no delta, but where there is the
appearance of a delta, no recurving ridge must
intervene between the core and delta points.
Arches come in two types, plain or tented. Arches
by definition have no delta's. If the pattern has a
delta then it is a loop and if it has more than one
delta it is a whorl. If you don't have a clear
understanding of what a delta is then jump to the
pattern types page so that you can better
understand them.
PLAIN ARCH TENTED ARCH
 You will notice in the image at right (plain arch) that
there is no delta and no significant core. Because
there is no delta this pattern, by default, has to be
an arch. If you study the image and look at the
overall pattern you notice that the pattern area
tends to just flow through the print with no
significant changes. This makes it a plain arch
pattern. If you compare the two images, plain arch
and tented arch, you can see that while the plain
arch tends to flow rather easily through the pattern
with no significant changes, the tented arch does
make a significant change and does not have the
same "easy" flow that the plain arch does. The
technical definition is that a tented arch has a
"significant upthrust" where a plain arch does not.
 If you study this image long enough you might say
"wait there appears to be a delta in there and it can't
be an arch with a delta!!". Well you are partially
correct in that yes, you could see a delta in this print
(three sides of the triangle) but here is why it is not a
valid delta: To be a valid delta there has to be a
significant recurving line which passes in front of the
delta, and in this case there is not.
 In a little simpler terms here is why this can't be a
loop, which it would be if it had a valid delta. If you
considered the "almost delta" which appears in the
near centre left side of the pattern, and you
attempted to get a ridge count then the ridge count
between the delta and core would be "0". You cannot
have a loop with a "0" ridge count. If you call
something a loop and then when you try to get a
 ridge count you come up with "0" then it is not a
loop but rather a tented arch, more than likely.
  For the purpose of classification under the
Australian Modification and Extension of the Henry
Fingerprint System, arches are divided into four
subgroups, as follows:
 PLAIN ARCH
There is an even flow of ridges from one side to the
other of the pattern.
 RADIAL ARCH
This arch approximates the loop type, where there
is a delta or the appearance of a delta and the
ridges slop towards the thumb. It may have a delta
and no recurving ridge, or a delta that is part of a
 recurving ridge, but when both these features
appear in a pattern, there must be no ridge count
between the core and delta points.
 ULNAR ARCH
The ulnar arch has the same characteristics as the
radial arch except the ridges slop towards the little
finger.
 TENTED ARCH
In patterns of the tented arch type, the ridges near
the middle have an upward thrust, arranging
themselves, as it were, on both sides of a spine or
axis, towards which the adjoining ridges converge.
The ridges thus converging give the appearance of
a tent in outline. In order to differentiate clearly
between tented arches and those loops whose
ridges are more or less vertical if on either side of
the axis even one ridge recurves, it is classified as
a loop.
When a pattern consists of a small ridge only
with an upward thrust, the extent of the upward
thrust of the enveloping ridge immediately above
the central spine determines whether it is a tented
arch or not. The enveloping ridge at this point
must have a distinct tent-like appearance. When a
pattern has no spine but instead a ridge forms the
distinct tent-like appearance, then it should be
classified as a tented arch. Where the pattern
consists of loop formations, thereby giving equal
claims to radial and ulnar loops, with or without a
central spine of axis, it is classified as a tented
arch.
 COMPOSITES
Composites include patterns in which
combinations of the tented arch, loop and whorl are
found in the same print, also patterns where the
majority of ridges are loops and a few ridges at the
centre or side are whorls. These are subdivided into
central pocket loops, double loops and accidentals.

1. Central pocket loop.

Central pocked loops are differentiated from
whorls by placing the line of the glass across the two
delta points. This line must not touch or cross any
ridge formation within the inner area of the pattern.
(The inner pattern is that portion of the print
contained inside both deltas.)
2. Double loop.
Double loop patterns consist of two separate loop
formations,
 with two separate and distinct sets of staples and two
deltas. They include the lateral pocket loop and twinned
loop types. Only those patterns with two well-defined
loops come within this category. In cases where the two
sets of staples are joined but where there is a definite
recurving ridge forming each staple, the pattern is
classed as a double loop, the presence of an appendage
on a well-defined loop does not effect the pattern.
Lateral pocket and twin loops.
Henry described lateral pocket loops as patterns whose
core points have their exits on the same side of one of
the deltas. In twin loops the ridges containing the core
points have their exits on different sides.
 Accidentals.
Under this heading are the relatively small
number of patterns too irregular in outline to be
grouped with central pocket loops and double
loops. They have two or more deltas and a
combination or fusion of two or more types of
patterns not including the plain, radial or ulnar
arch. This category also includes any freak
pattern or accidental formation that does not
conform to any conventional type.
 WHORL TRACINGS

There are two components of a

whorl classification. The first is
the whorl pattern such a plain,
double, central pocket and the
second is the tracing. The
tracing is relatively simple once
you understand it. The key is
 M
understanding it. In the image at right we see a plain
whorl pattern. To determine the tracing we must 1st
identify the left delta which has been marked in yellow
on the left side of the image.
 Now, from the left delta (in yellow) we follow the
1st line below the delta across the image until we
reach a point that is directly below the right delta.
To simplify this I have drawn a blue line from the
right delta down to signify this imaginary line. The
red line signifies the tracing of the line across the
image. Once these lines stop the point where the
red and imaginary line (in blue) meet, we then
count the number of intervening lines that are
intersected by the imaginary line (the one in blue).
The intersecting lines are noted in the light blue
color and if we count them we come up with 6
intervening lines.
 There are three types of tracings, outer, meet and
inner. Outer means that there are 3 or more
intersecting lines and they are outside of the
pattern area. In this case we had 6 lines and they
are outside the pattern area therefore this tracing
is an outer tracing. If the number of intersecting
lines (the ones in light blue) had been three or
less, then this would have been a meet tracing.
Now lets take a look at image O at left. In this
image we again take the left-most delta and begin
following a line until it intersects an imaginary line
(in blue) with the right delta. The we count the
intersecting lines (those in light blue) and we find
that there are 8 intersecting lines.
 . Remember the only thing
we are looking for is 3 or more
lines. In this case there is more
than three and this time the
intersecting point is inside the
pattern area. This makes this an
inner tracing. Again if the
imaginary intersecting line is within
3 intervening lines of the right
delta when counting across an
imaginary line, then it would be a
meet tracing. More than 3 to the
inside of the pattern area makes it
an inner tracing and more than 3
 O outside the pattern area make it
an outer tracing.
 Fingerprint
Identification
 Identification by fingerprints relies on pattern
matching followed by the detection of certain ridge
characteristics, also so known as Galton details,
points of identity, or minutiae, and the comparison
of the relative positions of these minutiae points
with a reference print, usually an inked impression
of a suspect's print. There are three basic ridge
characteristics, the ridge ending, the bifurcation
and the dot (or island). Identification points consist
of bifurcations, ending ridges, dots, ridges and
islands. A single rolled fingerprint may have as
many as 100 or more identification points that can
be used for identification purposes. There is no
exact size requirement as the number of points
found on a fingerprint impression depend on the
location of the print.
 As an example the area immediately surrounding a
delta will probably contain more points per square
millimetre than the area near the tip of the finger
which tends to not have that many points. 

Ending
Island Dot Bifurcation
Ridge
 In image 1 we see part of a fully rolled fingerprint.
Notice that the edges are cut-off so you can safely
assume that this is not a fully rolled impression. If
you take a look at image 2 you can see that I have
sectioned out the centre portion of this impression
and labelled 10 points of identification. That was
not all the points found but simply the ones that
could be mapped easily without cluttering up the
image.

Image 1
 Image 2 when measured 1:1 is just over 1/4" square. If you look
closely you should be able to identify 10 additional points that
were not mapped with the lines. In all I counted 22 points of
identification on this 1/4" square section of the impression. One
thing to note here, you might be under the impression that
making a fingerprint comparison is relatively easy but you
should keep in mind a couple things.
 First, image 1 and image 2 are both taken from the same
image. In real life you would have impressions made at
separate times and subject to different pressure distortions.
Secondly, these images are relatively clean and clear where
many of the actually crime scene prints are anything but clear.
Last you have to consider that this is an easy comparison
because you are blessed with having a core pattern and a delta
when in some cases you may have a latent that could be a
fingertip, palm or even foot impression.
Image 2
Basic and composite ridge
characteristics 
(minutiae)
  Minutiae Example Minutiae Example

ridge
bridge
ending

double
bifurcation
bifurcation
island (short ridge)opposed bifurcations

dot trifurcation

island
opposed
(short
bifurcations
ridge)
 lake ridge
(enclosure) crossing

opposed
hook
bifurcation/r
(spur)
idge ending
Latent Fingerprints
 The latent fingermark, deposited by the fingertip
pattern, is a complex mixture of natural secretions
and contaminations from the environment. Three
types of glands are responsible for the natural
secretions of the skin, the sudoriferous eccrine and
apocrine glands, and the sebaceous glands. The
sudoriferous glands are distributed all over the
body and produce the sweat. The secretory body of
each gland is formed of a long coiled tube situated
in the subcutaneous layers of the skin. The glands
transverse the epidermal layers to open at the
summits of the papillary ridges to form 'sweat' or
sudoriferous pores. Sweat is an aqueous solution
produced by the cells of the secretory body, without
loss of cell cytoplasm for the eccrine glands in
 in contrast with apocrine glands - this explains the
difference in chemical composition between these
two types of secretion. Eccrine sweat is
approximately 98.5 per cent water, the
remainder being principally made up of mineral
salts, eg, sodium chloride, organic acids, urea
and sugars.
 The palms of the hands and the soles of the feet
produce only eccrine gland secretions, whereas
the apocrine glands are located in the groin, in
the arm pits, and in the perianal regions, where
they generally open at the hair follicles.
 The sebaceous glands are found on the chest and
the back, where they are associated with hair
 roots, and on the forehead, the lips of the vagina,
the glands of the penis, and the mammary
areolae. These glands secrete an oil, the sebum,
which serves to protect the skin and hair against
water, to act as a lubricant, and also to help absorb
fat, lipid, soluble substances. The fatty substances
secreted by the sebaceous glands are not water-
soluble.
 These three types of glands, therefore, have well
defined functions and the chemical composition of
their secretions vary in consequence.
  The major chemical constituents of the glandular
secretions
SOURCE INORGANIC ORGANIC
eccrine glands chlorides amino acids
metal ions urea
sulfates uric acid
phosphates lactic acid
ammonia sugars
water (>98%) creatinine
choline
apocrine glands iron proteins
water carbohydrates
sterols
sebaceous glands   fatty acids
glycerides
hydrocarbons
alcohols
 As the ridges of the hands are covered
exclusively by eccrine glands, eccrine gland
secretions are present to some degree in every
latent fingerprint. Contamination by sebaceous
gland secretions is also very common, whereas
that from the apocrine glands is much rarer but
may be important in certain crimes, eg, crimes of
a sexual nature.
Sebaceous material is often transferred onto the
hands by contact between the hand and the
forehead, the nose and the eye region of the
head. This is encouraged unwittingly by irritation,
by common postures when sitting, eg, rubbing the
forehead, and by other natural everyday
occurrences, such as combing the hair.
 Latent fingermarks can be of the type discussed
above, where materials emanating from the
human body are the basic for the chemical
composition of the latent print. However,
contaminants from the workplace which dirty the
hands are also valuable when detecting latent
prints. Blood is an agent that abounds at the
scene of certain crimes of violence and can
sometimes be the major contaminant which
provides the print. Where the print deposit is
heavy, it can be detected visibly, for lighter
prints, enhancement can normally be achieved
by the application of blood staining reagents. 
  Techniques For Fingerprint Detection
And Enhancement
INTRODUCTION
The latent finger mark is visible and hence, for
its exploitation, it must be given characteristics which
differentiate it from the surface on which it is found.
Traditionally, this differentiation is obtained in the
form of a colored material, applied to the print by
either a physical or chemical process. In order for a
latent finger mark to be detected, a contrast must be
produced between the print and its support that
exceeds a certain threshold corresponding to the
sensitivity of the eye or the photosensitive detector
utilized.
The minimum amount of latent residue required to
observe a colored print by chemical processing is
approximately 100 to 200 ng (1 ng = 1 nanogram
= 0.000000001 g ), while 500 to 1000 ng is
necessary for the satisfactory adherence of a
powder. When the quantity of residue in the
fingerprint deposit is below such levels, the
developed print is normally weak and/or partial,
and may be unsuitable for identification purposes
regardless of the colorimetric technique employed
and the precautions taken to optimize
development.
 Among the range of techniques based on an
interaction between light and matter, those which
are followed by an emission of electromagnetic
radiation (in the present case, light) permit a
detection sensitivity considerably superior to that
obtained by absorption techniques (10 to 100
times higher - i.e., a valid result can be obtained
with 10 to 100 times less sample).
Photoluminescence is such a technique. It has
allowed a sensitivity in fingerprint detection that
was not possible 20 years ago.
Photoluminescence is the emission of light by
certain chemical species after exposure to a flux
of light energy of a given wavelength, known as
the excitation wavelength.
 Photoluminescence techniques can sometimes
detect latent prints directly, but are generally more
successful when used in conjunction with specific
chemical processes as detailed later.
 The combination of optical methods, (diffusion,
luminescence, UV absorption and reflection),
physical methods (powdering, small particle
reagent, vacuum metal deposition), physico-
chemical methods (physical developer, multimetal
deposition, iodine, cyanoacrylate) and chemical
methods (ninhydrin and its analogues, metal
complexation after ninhydrin treatment, DFO,
silver nitrate, etc...), permits a rational and highly
efficient processing of the secretions deposited by
the fingers on various surfaces. It is the
 treatment of these natural secretions, exposed to
the assault of time and the environment, that
permits the detection and development of latent
fingerprints.
 The first step in fingerprint detection at a crime
scene is to examine all surfaces and objects and
photograph or collect all visible fingermarks.
Some laboratories suggest the use of laser or
other high-intensity light source in the search for
luminescent fingerprints. Then arises the choice
of development techniques for the detection of
latent fingermarks - the choice is not always easy
given the wide range of procedures currently
available. The most efficient approach is to allow
for a sequence of techniques
 which complement one another but are not
mutually exclusive. To the extent that is possible,
all objects or pieces of evidence that can be taken
from the scene should be removed, with all the
normal precautions, for optimum fingerprint
treatment in the laboratory. On non-transportable
objects having smooth, non-absorbent surfaces,
the traditional development technique is
powdering.
 For a given set of circumstances, the choice of
the best detection techniques, or sequence of
techniques, would depend on several factors that
would include the following:
 the nature of the surface - eg, porous, non-porous, rough or
smooth
 the presence of any particular contaminants - eg, blood
 environmental factors - eg, whether or not the surface is or had
been wet
 the likely age of any evidential fingermarks.
One notion that is often ignored or misunderstood is that,
depending on the history of the evidential object, it may be
useless to proceed with certain examinations. For example, it is
futile applying a technique which relies on the detection of
eccrine secretions eg, amino acid detection using ninhydrin, if
the object has been wet since this component of the deposit is
water-soluble and would no longer be present!
If the correct choice of technique, or sequence of techniques is
made at the start, the chance of revealing any latent print that
may be present on an object is optimised. On the other hand,
the application of the wrong technique can ruin any possibility
of fingerprint detection.
  FORENSIC LIGHT SOURCES

The efficient optical detection of both latent

fingermarks and prints treated by physical or
chemical processes is dependent on the availability
of a suitable high intensity light source capable of
operating at a range of different wavelengths. A
Forensic Light Source (FLS) is defined as a high
intensity light source that has been specifically
designed for forensic applications that may include
crime scene examination, fingerprint detection, and
questioned document analysis.
 To obtain the best contrast from a
luminescent fingerprint, it is important that the
incident light (excitation) is at the wavelength of
maximum absorption, and the luminescence
observation is in the spectral region of maximum
emission. The required wavelength for the
incident light (the excitation) may be obtained by
filtering a broad band light source or by using a
light source which is monochromatic at that
wavelength, i.e., a laser.
 Observation should be made at the wavelength
of maximum photoluminescence emission. This
emission, which occurs at a longer wavelength
than the excitation light i.e., lower energy, is
observed through a
filter which transmits all, or the majority, of the
light emitted, but blocks or absorbs, the incident
light and/or other undesirable radiation. In this
manner, a bright luminescence against a dark
background can be observed, giving the
maximum possible contrast between the
luminescent mark and the support.
 In practice, these ideal conditions are rarely
achieved since either the substrate or environmental
contamination can interfere with the luminescence
detection. In such cases, the fingerprint is only
visible if its luminescence is more intense or at a
different wavelength to that emitted by the
background. The image obtained using
luminescence is always the reverse of the image
obtained by colorimetric methods since the image is
observed as an emission of light )luminescence)
rather than an absorption of light (colour). As a
result, a fingerprint image obtained by luminescence
has light ridges whereas that obtained by
conventional means shows dark ridges.
 LASERS
The word laser is an acronym derived from "light
amplification by stimulated emission of radiation". The
main physical differences between laser light and light
produced by other light sources is that the former is
monochromatic, i.e., single wavelength, coherent and very
intense. The coherence of light is a property which is not,
at present, employed for the detection of fingerprints. In
contrast, the high intensity is necessary when the excited
compound exhibits a low quantum yield.
 Monochromatic light, as supplied by a laser, is only an
advantage if its wavelength corresponds to, or
approximates, the maximum absorption of the compound
under investigation. However, each type of laser only
operates at a limited number of wavelengths. The
selection of laser "lines" (specific monochromatic laser
emissions) is often
 such that their wavelength is far from being optimum for
the excitation process. A 50 per cent loss of efficiency is
not uncommon and it is only the power of the laser that
can compensate for this limitation in the selection of an
excitation wavelength. This high power can, however,
introduce other problems such as evidence destruction
(holes burnt into dark surfaces, for example). Lasers
therefore suffer from a lack of flexibility which, combined
with their relatively high cost, has led to the development
of a number of "alternative" light sources based on high
intensity globes or arc lamps.
 There are several classes of laser used in fingerprint
detection work. The argon ion laser is the most versatile
laser and it can be operated in two main modes: the "all
lines lasing" mode which produces a beam of light having
light of different wavelengths, or alternatively the laser can
be adjusted to produce individual lines of light, i.e.,
monochromatic.
 NON-LASER LIGHT SOURCES

 A light source for fingerprint work should be capable of

giving a narrow band of intense light at any wavelength from
and including the UV through to at least 550nm. If the light
source is to be used for other applications such as
document examination, infrared light from around 700nm is
an additional advantage. No one laser can satisfy all of
these requirements and few laboratories can afford the
purchase of several different lasers. For some applications,
such as the search for visible fingerprints or for the detection
of footwear marks on smooth surfaces, strong white light is
also a useful tool. This can never be obtained from a laser.
As a result, a number of non-laser light sources, or
"alternative" light sources (ALS) have been developed
specifically for fingerprint applications.
 The versatility and relatively low cost of a conventional light
source compared to the laser has lead many laboratories to
prefer the former for fingerprint work. For example, the use
of a modified and filtered xenon arc lamp can give results
comparable with those obtained with a laser for a range of
techniques. Better results can be obtained with a filtered
lamp if the required excitation wavelength does not
correspond to one of the available laser lines. Another
advantage, associated with the use of interference filters, is
the possibility of adjusting the bandpass (region of
transmission) by varying the angle of the filter in the light
beam, i.e., varying the angle of incidence - this "fine tuning"
of the excitation, or observation, can be used to optimise the
signal-to-noise ratio. The use of this phenomenon can give
remarkable results in the detection of luminescent
fingerprints on printed or multicoloured surfaces. The
Polilight®, a forensic light source produced in Australia, is
the only commercial system offering this fine tuning
capability
 Physico-Chemical Detection Techniques
1. PHYSICAL DEVELOPER
Physical Developer (PD) is a fingerprint development
reagent that is effective on most paper surfaces and
on untreated wood. The reagent is an aqueous
solution of silver ions, a ferrous/ferric redox
(reduction/oxidation) system, a buffer and a
detergent. The detergent prevents the premature
deposition of silver ions. When the paper is
immersed in this solution, silver metal is deposited on
its surface. The silver metal is deposited
preferentially on any fingerprints present and such
prints become visible as dark grey ridges against a
light grey background.
Contrary to ninhydrin, the reagent is sensitive to
components in the latent print which are not soluble
in water, i.e., sebaceous secretions. On wet paper
or paper which has been wet, PD is one of the only
techniques which can permit the satisfactory
development of latent prints. The reagent may also
be used as a treatment after ninhydrin if the latter
has failed to reveal useful prints on a dry paper
surface. PD can improve fingerprints partially
developed with ninhydrin or develop prints not
observed after ninhydrin treatment.
 The PD technique presents some major
inconveniences. It is destructive, components in
the paper may react strongly with the reagent, and
no other fingerprint development technique is
effective after PD treatment, except for the
radioactive enhancement technique discussed
below. The PD reagent is delicate to prepare, it is a
solution which is unstable since its efficiency is
dependent on its very instability. A reasonable
amount of experience is required for its successful
preparation and utilization. Despite these
reservations, PD should be systematically applied
at the end of any detection sequence on paper.
 2. RADIOACTIVE ENHANCEMENT
When prints developed by the physical developer
process are weak or show insufficient contrast due
to background patterns or colourations,
radioactivity may be introduced by transforming
the metallic silver (deposited by the physical
developer) into radioactive silver sulfide. 
The article, after treatment by PD, is immersed in
a solution of bromine and potassium bromide
which transforms the metallic silver into silver
bromide. After being rinsed several times in water,
the article is then treated with a solution of
thiourea or sodium sulfide which converts the
silver bromide into radioactive silver sulfide. It is
then possible to develop an
 image of the fingerprint by autoradiography,
treated fingerprint is placed in contact with a film
sensitive to radioactive emissions. The exposure
time depends on the degree of radioactivity of the
treated print and varies, in general, from a few
hours to several weeks.
 Radioactive methods of fingerprint detection
present several disadvantages which are inherent
to the use of radioactive materials, the reagents
are expensive and specific safety measures must
be taken. The use of such techniques is therefore
restricted to specialized laboratories. However, the
remarkable results that can be obtained with these
methods justify their application under certain
circumstances.
 MULTIMETAL DEPOSITION
This technique combines the principles of a small particle
reagent and of a physical developer and was developed
under the name of "Multimetal Deposition" (MMD). The
development is achieved in two steps, the first being
immersion of the object to be treated in a solution of
tetrachloroauric acid (gold chloride) where the active
constituent is colloidal gold. The use of colloidal gold is an
established technique in biochemistry for the detection of
proteins, peptides and, by extension, amino acids. It is now
known that colloidal gold, at a certain pH (2.5 and 3.9),
binds to the amino acids, peptides, and proteins in the latent
fingerprint deposit to give a weakly gold metallic outline of
the ridges. In some cases, identifiable prints are obtained
after this first step.
 The second step involves the treatment of prints
developed by the "colloidal gold" process with a modified
Physical Developer solution. The bound colloidal gold
provides a nucleation site around which silver precipitates
from the PD solution. This step greatly amplifies the
visibility of the print which, after this second treatment,
can vary in colour from light grey to almost black. One
advantage of the Multimetal Deposition technique is that it
can be incorporated into fingerprint reagent sequences,
as will be discussed later.
 Many types of surfaces, porous or non-porous, wet or dry,
can be treated by this technique. Examples are, metal
objects, wet and dry paper, plastic, glass, styrofoam, both
sides of adhesive tape, and floppy disk surfaces.
Fingerprints in blood may also be enhanced by the
treatment.
 Tests have shown that the method is particularly
effective on plastic, glass, white paper, adhesive
tape and expanded polystyrene. Prints up to
three years of age have been detected on
plastic and white paper. On certain paper
surfaces, MMD gave better results than the
conventional physical developer. On dry
surfaces, however, MMD was generally not as
sensitive as conventional techniques such as
cyanoacrylate (non-porous surfaces) or DFO
(porous surfaces). 
 IODINE-BENZOFLAVONE
Iodine Fuming
The development of latent fingerprints with iodine fumes
involves a simple method of application, is inexpensive,
fast and reversible, and does not generally preclude the
subsequent application of other techniques. Iodine
treatment may possibly be the oldest procedure for the
development of latent prints. It is a physical process that
relies principally on the absorption of iodine vapour by the
lipids present in the fingerprint deposit to give a brown
coloration. Prints developed with iodine are difficult to
record because of the usually poor and transient contrast
unless they are chemically fixed, and the effectiveness of
the method decreases rapidly with time. The technique
may be applied to a wide range of surfaces such as
paper, wood, plastic and glass, but, due to its limited
sensitivity, prints older
 than three to five days are unlikely to be detected by
exposure to iodine. In addition, iodine vapour is toxic and
corrosive, therefore prolonged exposure to iodine fumes
must therefore be avoided.
 The application of iodine followed by transfer to a silver
plate has had limited success for the detection of fresh
fingerprints on skin and leather (< 12 hours old for the
latter) but the results are difficult to reproduce and depend
on factors difficult to control. To apply the technique, prints
are fumed with iodine then immediately transferred to a
highly polished silver plate by firm contact over
approximately 5 seconds. The transferred prints are then
visualised by exposure of the silver plate to a strong light
source. This results in the formation of a dark image of the
latent print against the shiny surface of the silver plate. 
 Benzoflavone Post-Treatment
Fingerprints developed with iodine fade quickly and usually
show poor contrast, it is therefore advantageous to fix the
prints chemically by the application of a reagent that will
increase both the contrast and the stability. A variety of
reagents has been proposed (eg, starch, tetrabase), but
the best results have been achieved with the organic
fixative 7,8-benzoflavone (also known as naphthoflavone).
Prints fumed with iodine are immediately treated with a
solution of 7,8-benzoflavone, a dark blue-purple coloration
generally results.
 Iodine- Benzoflavone Spray
The use of a mixed solution of iodine and 7,8-benzoflavone
has been suggested for the development of latent
fingerprints at the scene of crime on surfaces such as
wallpaper,
 emulsion painted walls and aged gloss painted surfaces.
The solution may be applied with a spray, a paint brush, or
a paint roller, and is currently used with good success by
the Serious Crimes Unit (SCU) of Scotland Yard. A few
minutes after application of the reagent, treated prints
become visible as dark blue ridges. As the mixed reagent
is not stable, it is prepared at the crime scene by mixing a
solution of iodine with a solution of 7.8-benzoflavone just
before use. The technique is particularly effective for
revealing fresh marks less than a week old. Prints more
than a week old are less efficiently developed. A further
study has shown that the spray technique is more effective
for revealing fingerprints at the crime scene on the
surfaces mentioned above, then either ninhydrin or
iodine/Benzoflavone solution applied with a brush.
 Cyanoacrylate Fuming
Cyanoacrylate esters (generally the methyl or ethyl ester)
are colourless, monomeric liquids sold commercially rapid,
high-strength glues eg, "Superglue". Cyanoacrylate liquid
forms a vapour which reacts with moisture and certain
eccrine and sebaceous components in a latent fingerprint.
The vapour selectively polymerises on the fingerprint
ridges to form a hard, white polymer known as
polcyanoacrylate. Greasy fingerprints i.e., prints with a
high sebaceous component, appear to be particularly
sensitive to cyanoacrylate vapour although the glue
probably also reacts with the moisture and some water-
soluble (eccrine) components in the print. The technique is
effective on most non-porous surfaces including metal,
glass and plastic. Originally developed in Japan in the late
1970's, the cyanoacrylate fuming process is now the most
widely used fingerprint detection technique for non-porous
objects treated in the laboratory.
 Cyanoacrylate Development
Numerous methods for cyanoacrylate treatment have been
published, and several commercial fuming chambers are
available on the market. A cost-effective fuming chamber
involves the use of a large glass container, such as a fish
aquarium modified to allow the introduction of an
appropriate heat source (eg, soldering irons). The samples
to be treated are suspended in the tank, a few drops of
liquid cyanoacrylate vaporised by heating to approximately
100° C, and a cover placed over the chamber to contain the
fumes. Solid cyanoacrylate polymer, i.e., polycyanoacrylate,
may also be used to develop fingerprints, but higher
temperatures (160-180° C) are required for its
vapourisation. The objects are removed when sufficient
fingerprint detail is observed.
 Section I. Introduction
 The purpose of this program is to provide
information regarding the nature of
fingerprints and outline techniques for taking
legible fingerprints.
 Fingerprints can be recorded on a standard
fingerprint card or digitally. Obtaining quality
fingerprint impressions can be a matter of
using proper techniques. Even though the
methods of recording fingerprints may differ,
the techniques for obtaining quality
fingerprints are very similar.
 Section II. Fingerprint Pattern Types

 Fingerprints are the result of minute ridges
and valleys found on the hand of every
person. In the fingers and thumbs, these
ridges form patterns of loops, whorls and
arches.
 Section III. Fingerprint Impression Types

 There are two types of impressions
involved in taking fingerprints. The upper ten
impressions are taken individually, thumb,
index, middle, ring, and little fingers of each
hand. These are referred to as the "rolled"
impressions because the fingers are rolled
from one side of the fingernail to the other, in
order to obtain all available ridge detail.
 The impressions at the bottom of the
card are taken simutaneously without
rolling, printing all of the fingers of each
hand at a forty-five degree angle and
then the thumbs. These are referred to
as "plain," "slapped," or "flat"
impressions. The plain impressions are
used to verify the sequence and
accuracy of the rolled impressions.
Steps for Fingerprinting
 The recommended height for the fingerprinting
device (Card or Live-Scan) is approximately
thirty-nine inches from the floor. This will allow
the forearm of an average adult being
fingerprinted to be parallel to the floor, at
which position it is best to roll and record
fingerprints. If the fingerprinting device is not
at this height, care must be taken or the finger
tends to rise off the device. If this happens, the
technician will fail to capture the lower portion
of the first joint and necessary ridge detail will
be missing.
 1.Fingers to be printed must be clean
and dry. Wiping the individual's fingers
with an alcohol swab and then drying
them should prevent perspiration from
being a problem. If the individual's
occupation has caused a wearing down
or rough surface on the fingers, use
lotion to soften the fingers (be sure to
wipe the lotion off before printing).
 2. The individual being fingerprinted
should be asked to stand in front of and
at a forearm's length from the
fingerprinting device. The
individual should stand to the right and
rear of the person taking the fingerprints
3. Encourage the individual being fingerprinted
to relax. Ask them to look at some distant
object to distract them from what you are
doing.

4. Grasp the individual's right hand at the base

of the thumb with your right hand. Cup your
hand over the individual's fingers, tucking
under those fingers not being printed. Guide
the finger being printed with your left hand.
 5. If using the ink and paper method, roll the
finger on the inking plate or Porelon Pad so
that the entire fingerprint pattern area is
evenly covered with ink. The ink should
cover from one edge of the nail to the other
and from the crease of the first joint to the tip
of the finger. Using the right amount of ink is
of vital importance. Too little ink and the
impression will be too light. Too much ink
and the fine details will run together.
 6. In taking the rolled impression, the side of
the bulb (see illustration above) of the finger
is placed upon the paper fingerprint card or
the fingerprinting device, and the finger is
rolled to the other side until it faces the
opposite direction. Care should be exercised
so the bulb of each finger is rolled evenly
from tip to below the first joint. Generally, the
weight of the finger is all the pressure
needed to clearly record the fingerprint.
 7. In order to take advantage of the natural
movement of the forearm, the hand should
be rotated from the more difficult position to
the easiest position.
    
 This requires that the thumbs be rolled
toward and the fingers away from the center
of the individual's body. This process relieves
strain and leaves the fingers relaxed when
rolling so that they may be lifted easily
without danger of slipping which smudges
and blurs the fingerprints.
 8. Roll each finger from nail to nail in the
appropriate space taking care to lift each
finger up and away after rolling, to avoid
smudging.

 9. If using the ink and paper method and a

rolled impression is not acceptable, you may
use an adhesive re-tab to cover the
fingerprint in its space. (No more than one
re-tab per finger block is permitted.) For live
scan, the image can be deleted and retaken.
 10. Plain impressions are printed last, at the
bottom of the card. The technician
simutaneously presses the individual's four
fingers (on the right hand), keeping the fingers
together, on the surface of the fingerprint card or
the fingerprinting device at a forty-five degree
angle in order to capture all four fingers in the
allotted space (see illustration). Repeat this
process for the left hand.
      Print both thumbs simutaneously in the
plain impression thumb blocks (to ensure that
they are in the proper spaces).
 Please Note: Never place a fingerprint impression
on the back of a fingerprint card.
 
 11. If using the ink and paper method, complete the
information at the top of the fingerprint card
(masthead). If using live scan, complete the
required information.
 Special Situations
 Special attention must be given when
fingerprinting an individual with abnormalities
of the fingers, thumbs or hands. Special
situations include:
 • Amputations
• Bandaged Fingers or Hands
• Scars
• Deformities
• Worn Fingerprints
• Extra Fingers
• Webbed Fingers
 Amputations

 An amputation exists when an individual has

one or more fingers, thumbs or hands
missing. This condition should be noted in
the appropriate block of the fingerprint
submission. Total amputation should be
designated using the following notations:
 • Amputation (AMP)
• XX
• Missing at Birth (MAB)
 Bandaged Fingers or Hands
If the individual has a bandage or cast on a finger,
thumb or hand, place the
notation, "Unable to Print" or "UP" in the
appropriate finger block.
 Scars
A scar exists when an individual has permanent
tissue damage to finger, thumb
or hand and when only pattern areas that have
been totally destroyed or the ridge
detail appears distorted. These fingerprints should
be taken as they exist. The
scars can be noted as "Scarred," but it is not
required.
 Deformities
A deformity may exist as a result of an injury, birth
defect or disease. An attempt
should be made to fingerprint the individual with the
techniques outlined
previously; although special equipment (e.g., a
fingerprint spoon) may be
needed when fingerprinting individuals with
deformities. The equipment can
be found in the "Postmortem Kit" and consists of:
 • Black Printers Ink
• Spatula
• Fingerprint Card Strip Holder (Spoon)
• Fingerprint Card Strips
 How to Use the Fingerprint Spoon
 1. Place a fingerprint card strip in the fingerprint
card strip holder (spoon).
 2. Using the spatula, ink the finger (starting with the
right hand) and be sure to apply ink from nail to
nail.
 3. Place the inked finger on the fingerprint card strip
holder (curved area) and press down. Do not roll
the finger. The curved shape of the holder will
serve the same purpose as rolling the finger.
 4. Cut out the finger block from the card strip and
paste in the corresponding block on the standard
fingerprint card.

 5. Repeat these steps for each of the remaining

fingers. Be sure to record the correct finger in the
correct finger block.

 Please Note: A strip of fingerprint re-tabs can be

substituted for the
fingerprint card strip
 If utilizing Live-Scan equipment, the use of a
Fingerprint Spoon is not an option. You
may want to fingerprint the individual on a standard
fingerprint card using either Black Printers Ink,
Porelon Pad or the Chemical method so that a
Fingerprint Spoon may be used. Then either scan
the fingerprint card and submit electronically, or
mail the card.
 If Live-Scan is the only option, then the finger
block(s) should be left empty with a notation of
"Unable to Print" or "UP." However, the number of
finger blocks without fingerprint images should be
kept at a minimum (no more than five).
 Worn Fingerprints
An individual may, by the nature of their work or
age, have very thin or worn ridges in the pattern
area. Light pressure and very little ink are used to
record these types of fingerprint impressions. A
technique known as "milking the fingers" can be
used to raise the fingerprints prior to fingerprinting.
The technique involves applying pressure or
rubbing the fingers in a downward motion from
palm to fingertip.
In a situation of dry, flaky fingers, simply add
a small amount of hand lotion or ridge builder prior
to fingerprinting.
 Extra Fingers

If an individual has more than ten fingers, the

thumbs and the next four fingers should be printed.

When a subject with more than ten fingers has

an intentional amputation performed, it is invariably
the extra finger on the little finger side that is
amputated.
 If utilizing Live-Scan equipment, the use of a
Fingerprint Spoon is not an option. You
may want to fingerprint the individual on a standard
fingerprint card using either Black Printers Ink,
Porelon Pad or the Chemical method so that a
Fingerprint Spoon may be used. Then either scan
the fingerprint card and submit electronically, or
mail the card.
 If Live-Scan is the only option, then the finger
block(s) should be left empty with a notation of
"Unable to Print" or "UP." However, the number of
finger blocks without fingerprint images should be
kept at a minimum (no more than five).
 Worn Fingerprints
An individual may, by the nature of their work
or age, have very thin or worn ridges in the pattern
area. Light pressure and very little ink are used to
record these types of fingerprint impressions. A
technique known as "milking the fingers" can be
used to raise the fingerprints prior to fingerprinting.
The technique involves applying pressure or
rubbing the fingers in a downward motion from
palm to fingertip.
In a situation of dry, flaky fingers, simply add a
small amount of hand lotion or ridge builder prior to
fingerprinting.
 Extra Fingers
If an individual has more than ten fingers, the
thumbs and the next four fingers should be printed.
When a subject with more than ten fingers has an
intentional amputation performed, it is invariably the
extra finger on the little finger side that is
amputated.
Webbed Fingers or Split Thumbs
An individual may have two or more fingers webbed
or grown together, making it impossible to roll such
fingers. Such fingers should be rolled as completely
as possible, and a made to the effect that they are
joined or "webbed”.
 Quality Checklist
 To verify that the fingerprint impressions
meet the FBI's requirements, please use the
following checklist:

 1. Is there a fingerprint impression in each

finger block? If there is a missing fingerprint
impression, is there a reason noted in the
finger block (e.g., AMP, missing at birth,
unable to print, etc.)?
 2. Are the fingerprints rolled fully, from nail to nail?

 3. If the fingerprint impression is a loop, are the

delta and core present? If the fingerprint impression
is a whorl, are all deltas present?

 4. Are the fingerprint impressions clear and

distinct?

 5. Are the fingerprint impressions uniform in tone

and not too dark or light?
 6. Are the four finger impressions and a thumb
impression in the plain impression block for each
hand?

 7. Are the rolled fingerprint impressions in the

correct finger blocks when
    compared to the plain impressions?