Light waves

A brief history of light

• 
The nature of light waves
• An accelerating charge can generate electromagnetic radiation
• Alternatively, (as in cavity radiation), when atoms are de-excited, they emit radiation
• String waves, sound waves  disturbance created by a changing quantity with time and travels
due to elastic & inertia properties of medium
• Light waves No material medium (earlier concept of “ether”)
• Electric field (E) and magnetic field (B) perpendicular to each other, E x B gives the direction of
propagation. E/B = c
• Transverse nature, plane polarized
• Equation of wave: E = E0 sin w(t — x/v)
• Equation of spherical wave: E = a E0 /r sin w(t — r I v)  amplitude α 1/r  intensity α 1/r2
Concept of refractive index
• 
Some interesting points
• A strictly monochromatic light is not possible to obtain. There is always a spread in wavelength.
The best monochromatic light are LASERS in which the spread in wavelength is very small but not
zero. We shall use the word “monochromatic light” to mean that the light contains a dominant
wavelength with only a little spread in wavelength.
• If a wave is obstructed during its propagation by an obstacle or an opening, it gets diffracted (?) A
plane wave going through a small opening becomes more like a spherical wave on the other side.
Thus, the wave bends at the edges.
Rules governing geometrical optics
• Rectilinear propagation of light
• Reflection of light
• Refraction of light
Huygen’s principle
• Various points of an arbitrary surface, when reached by a wavefront, become secondary
sources of light emitting secondary wavelets. The disturbance beyond the surface results
from the superposition of these secondary wavelets

• If the medium is homogeneous, (i.e., the optical properties of the medium are same
everywhere) light moves forward. We assume, therefore, that the secondary wavelets
are emitted only in the forward direction and the geometrical envelope of the wavelets is
to be taken in the direction of advancement of the wave.
Rectilinear propagation of light
• The wavelength of light is much smaller than the obstacles or
openings usually encountered
• Thus, in general cases, the diffraction effect is negligible and the rays
go along straight lines & cast shadows of the obstacles.
Reflection of Light
Refraction of light
•  λ1/λ2 = sin(i) / sin(r)  Snell’s law
YOUNG'S DOUBLE HOLE EXPERIMENT

• HCV 365
YOUNG'S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT
• E1 = E01 sin(kx - ωt)
• E2 = E02 sin[k(x + Δx) - ωt] =E02 sin[kx – ωt+ δ]

• Amplitude when they meet

• Intensity when they meet

• Constructive interference (bright fringe)

• Destructive interferernce (dark fringe)

Fringe width
• Path difference
Intensity ratio of Maxima: Minima
• Intensity is proportional to the square of amplitude
• If the two slits have light of different amplitude entering (possible
even if the slit widths are different), say A1 and A2, the minima aren’t
completely dark
• The ratio of intensities is given by
• I1/I2 = (A1+A2)2/(A1-A2)2  (How?)
Coherent and incoherent sources
• HCV 369
• Definition of coherence
• Incoherent source: Electric bulbs, candle, sun etc
• Mechanism of emission of light
• Nature of a light wave – a short wave train of several meters emitted in small time  Large spread in
wavelengths (different wavelengths superimposing to produce short wavetrain)
• Emission of waves from random set of atoms at random instances  random change in phase of two
sources
• No stable interference pattern from 2 such independent sources
• Restriction on the path difference
• Coherent source: LASER
• Mechanism of Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
• Nature of a light wave - source emitting long wave trains of several hundred meters  Small spread in
wavelength
• Cooperation among atoms  Coherence
• Two independent lasers can produce stable interference pattern
• Path difference of several meters allowed
 Optical path
• When a wave travels a distance of Δx in a medium of refractive index μ, we have seen that the phase changes by kΔx

• A travel of Δx in a medium ≡ phase change of kΔx = phase change of 2πΔx / λ medium

• We also know that μ = c/V = λvac/air/ λmedium 1/ λmedium= μ /λvac/air

• Thus a travel of Δx in a medium ≡ phase change by 2πμΔx/λ vac/air = μ(2πΔx/λvac/air)

• In other words, path of Δx in a medium ≡ path of μΔx in vacuum/air

• In even other words, if a medium of refractive index μ & thickness t replaces air/ vacuum, the change in path travelled = μt – t = t(μ-
1)

• Alternative approaches on HCV 367

• So, if a thin slab of, say glass, is introduced in front of one of the slits in Young’s double slit experiment, can you guess what will
happen?
Interference from thin films
Fraunhofer Diffraction at a single slit

• Imagine every small element of the strip as one source

• Central Maxima:
• Path difference between AP0 and BP0 is 0 and hence they superimpose to produce maxima at P0 (Central Maxima)
• Minima:
• If path difference between extreme rays AP and BP is λ (=a sinϴ) , path difference between AP and OP will be λ/2 (=a
sinϴ /2) ( Minimum path diff between AP and BP must be λ)
• Thus any point between AO (such as G) and a corresponding point between OB (such as H) will be separated by λ/2
and hence will produce destructive interference.
• Thus when a sinϴ /2 = nλ/2  a sinϴ =nλ (n= 1, 2, 3…)  Destructive Interference (Minima)
• Secondary Maxima:
• If path difference between AP and BP is 3λ/2, we can split the slit in 3 parts such that for every point in first part,
there is always a corresponding point in second part separated by λ/2
• Thus all rays from first two parts cancel each other giving a secondary maxima from the third part
• Thus, a sinϴ = (2n+1) λ/2 (n=1,2,3…)  Secondary maxima
Width of fringes

• For small ϴ, sin ϴ = tan ϴ = y/D

• (n)th minima: a y/D =nλ  ynd = nDλ/a
• (n+1)th minima: a y/D =(n+1) λ  y(n+1)d =(n+1)Dλ/a
• Width of secondary maxima wsb = y(n+1)d - ynd = λD/a = wmin
• Width of central maxima = wcm = y1dL-y1dR = 2λD/a

• What will be the angular width of the central maxima?

• What kind of a diffraction pattern will we observe using two slits?
 FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION BY A CIRCULAR
APERTURE
• When a wave is obstructed by an obstacle, the rays bend
round the corner. This phenomenon is known as diffraction.
• For first minima, sin ϴ = tan ϴ = y/D = 1.22 λ/b
• Thus, radius of first dark ring = R = 1.22 λD/b
• Most of the light is concentrated within first dark ring, hence
this radius is called the radius of diffraction disc
• The above discussion shows that a converging lens of an
optical instrument (e.g. telescope/ eye) can never form a
point image of a distant point source. In the best conditions, it
produces a bright disc surrounded by dark and bright rings.
• Two point objects are just resolved if first minima of one
object falls on central maxima of the other. The lens
resolution increases on increasing its radius as it increases
the angular radius ϴ.
Scattering of light
• HCV 374
• Scattering definition
• Scattering dependence on wavelength (1/λ4)& particle size, nature (air
molecules, dust, water particles)
• Blue colour of sky
• Red colour of sun at sunrise/set
• Black colour of sky and visibility of stars above atmosphere
Exercise
• 2, 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 13, 29, 31, 33.