Reading and Writing

Skills
ENG02
What’s the last book you’ve
read?
“Sabihin mo sa`kin kung ano ang
binabasa mo, at sasabihin ko
sa`yo ang dangal ng bayan mo.”

-”Amang” Jun Cruz Reyes

UNIT 1: Reading and
Thinking Strategies
WHAT IS READING?
Reading is a cognitive process of decoding symbols to derive meaning from a text.
Reading as a Cognitive
Process
UNIT 1: Reading and Thinking Strategies
Schema Theory
• Schema theory tries to explain how readers utilize prior knowledge
to understand and get new information from the text (Rumelhart,
1980).
• The theory claims that written text does not carry meaning by
itself. It only guides readers to retrieve or construct meaning from
the structures or patterns of this prior knowledge. These
structures are called schemata (singular: schema).
INTERPRETATION OF MEANING

Bottom-up Interactive- Top-down

Theory Compensatory Theory
Theory
BOTTOM-UP MODEL

• from text to meaning (which focuses on linguistic clues,

builds literal comprehension of a text)
• construct meaning from the most basic units of language,
including letters, letter clusters, and words
• specific to general
• the emphasis is on how the reader extract information from
the printed page, and on whether or not learners deal with
letters and words in a systematic fashion.
TOP-DOWN MODEL
• top-down reading contains predicting, inferring, and focusing
on meanings (Grabe 1991). Reading is actually “a
psychological guessing game”, in the words of Goodman
(1970).
• emphasizes the use of background knowledge to predict the
meaning of the reading or listening text. For example,
readers develop hypotheses about the content of a text,
which they have to confirm or reject while reading. The
uptake of information is thus guided by an individual’s prior
knowledge and expectations that the reader brings to the
text.
INTERACTIVE COMPENSATORY MODEL

• recognizes the interaction of bottom-up

and top-down processes simultaneously
throughout the reading process
• uses print as input and has meaning as
output
• the reader provides input, too, and the
reader, interacting with the text, is
selective in using just as little of the cues
from text as necessary to construct
meaning. (Goodman, K., 1981)
The Reading Process

Applying
Exploring
Responding
Reading
Prereading
Pre-reading
• Readers prepare themselves to read
• Activating prior knowledge (schema)
• Making predictions
• Goal-setting
• Scanning and skimming
Pre-Reading
1. What do you know about the text?
2. What do you think will you learn from the text?
Reading
• Actual reading
• Read Independently; with a partner, using shared reading or
guided reading; or listen to the text read aloud
• Annotating (taking down notes, highlighting)
Responding
• Reacting to the reading material
• Group discussions
• Writing in reading journals
Exploring
• Rereading the text
• Learning more about the text (new knowledge, vocabulary
words)
• Making connections to personal experiences and other texts
Applying
• Using the reader’s new knowledge to create an output or
construct projects
• Reading more books written by the same author, of the
same genre, or any other related material
APPLICATION OF READING PROCESS
LADY LAZARUS by Sylvia Plath
 LADY
LAZARUS
BY SILVIA PLATH
 What a trash
I have done it again. To annihilate each decade.
Soon, soon the flesh
One year in every ten
Peel off the napkin The grave cave ate will be
I manage it——
O my enemy. What a million filaments.
At home on me
Do I terrify?——
The peanut-crunching crowd
A sort of walking miracle, my skin
And I a smiling woman. Shoves in tso see
Bright as a Nazi lampshade,
The nose, the eye pits, the full set of teeth?
My right foot I am only thirty.
The sour breath
And like the cat I have nine times to die. Them unwrap me hand and foot——
Will vanish in a day.
A paperweight,
The big strip tease.

My face a featureless, fine This is Number Three. Gentlemen, ladies

Jew linen.
These are my hands I rocked shut I do it so it feels like hell. Amused shout:
My knees. I do it so it feels real.
I may be skin and bone, As a seashell. I guess you could say I’ve a call. ‘A miracle!’
They had to call and call That knocks me out.
Nevertheless, I am the same, identical woman. And pick the worms off me like sticky pearls. It’s easy enough to do it in a cell. There is a charge
The first time it happened I was ten. It’s easy enough to do it and stay put.
It was an accident. Dying It’s the theatrical For the eyeing of my scars, there is a charge
Is an art, like everything else. For the hearing of my heart——
The second time I meant I do it exceptionally well. Comeback in broad day It really goes.
To last it out and not come back at all. To the same place, the same face, the same
brute
 .
Herr God, Herr Lucifer
And there is a charge, a very I am your opus, Ash, ash— Beware
large charge You poke and stir. Beware.
I am your valuable,
For a word or a touch Flesh, bone, there is nothing
The pure gold baby there——
Or a bit of blood Out of the ash
That melts to a shriek. I rise with my red hair
A cake of soap,
Or a piece of my hair or my And I eat men like air.
clothes. I turn and burn. A wedding ring,
So, so, Herr Doktor. Do not think I underestimate A gold filling.
your great concern.
So, Herr Enemy.
 By describing dying as an art, she includes a spectator to both her deaths
and resurrections. Because the death is a performance, it necessarily requires
others. In large part, she kills herself to punish them for driving her to it. The
eager "peanut-crunching crowd" is invited but criticized for its voyeuristic
impulse. The crowd could certainly be understood to include the reader
himself, since he reads the poem to explore her dark impulses. She assumes
that her voyeurs are significantly invested - they would pay the "large charge"
to see her scars and heart.
However, she imbues this impulse with a harsh criticism by comparing the
crowd to the complacent Germans who stood aside while the Jews were
thrown into concentration camps. Further, the crowd ultimately proves less an
encouragement than a burden when they also attend the resurrection. She
despises this second part of the process, and resents the presence of others at
that time. Whether this creates a vicious circle, in which that resentment is
partially responsible for the subsequent attempt, is implied but not explicitly
stated.
The poem can also be understood through a feminist lens, as a
demonstration of the female artist's struggle for autonomy in a
patriarchal society. Lynda K. Bundtzen writes that "the female
creation of a male-artist god is asserting independent creative
powers." From this perspective, "Lady Lazarus" is not merely a
confessional poem detailing depressive feelings, but is also a
statement on how the powerful male figure usurps Plath's
creative powers but is defeated by her rebirth. Though Lady
Lazarus knows that "Herr Doktor" will claim possession of her
body and remains after forcing her suicide, she equally believes
she will rise and "eat men like air." Her creative powers can be
stifled momentarily, but will always return stronger.
BAYAN KO
by Fredie Aguilar

Ang bayan At sa Ibon mang Pilipinas

kong kanyang may kong
Pilipinas yumi at layang minumuty
ganda lumipad a
Lupain ng
ginto't Dayuhan ay Kulungin Pugad ng
bulaklak nahalina mo at luha at
Pag-ibig na Bayan ko, umiiyak dalita
sa kanyang binihag ka
palad Bayan pa Aking
Nasadlak sa kayang adhika
Nag-alay ng dusa sakdal-
ganda't dilag Makita
dilag kang
Ang 'di sakdal laya
magnasan
g
makaalpas
Reading Strategies
Getting an overview of the text.
Using context clues.
Using connotation and denotation.
Getting an overview of the
text.
Previewing
Skimming
Scanning
Previewing
Previewing is getting a sense of what's in a given piece of work without
reading the body of the text. It helps you familiarize with the contents
of the selection and focus on the important information in the text.
When should you preview?
Previewing helps you decide whether a book or article is useful for your
purpose.  It gives you a general sense of the content so you can see if
you want to read in more detail, and it helps you locate sections that
you need to read, and sections you don't.
How to preview
Read the title and author details
Read the abstract (if available)
Read main headings, chapter summaries, and anything that 'jumps out'
at you
Look at any diagrams, graphs, tables.  These usually summarise content
of large written paragraphs.
Skimming
Skimming is reading small amounts from throughout the text. It is
different from previewing, because you're reading the body of the text.
The chief benefit of skimming is in being able to pick up the key ideas
quickly.  

When should you skim?

When you want to get an overview or the gist of a text. This can help
you decide whether or not to read the full text.
Skimming adds to the information that you picked up in previewing.
How to skim
If the introduction is short read it in full. If long, read the first sentence
of each paragraph. Then read the first sentence of each subsequent
paragraph, or until you find the topic sentence (usually the first or
second sentence). This will give you an overview of the content of the
passage. It can also be useful to read the concluding paragraph in full.
For a report or research paper, first of all read the Abstract. Then look
over the section headings and subheadings and any figures or tables
before skimming the text. It may also be useful to read the Conclusion.
Don't get bogged down.  This is a fast process.
Scanning
You skim read material to get the general picture.  
You scan when looking for specific information.

When should you scan?

You may need to find specific details on a topic for an assignment or a
task that your lecturer has set.  There is little point in skimming a whole
book for this purpose.  You should scan the text for words related to the
topic.  You can run your eyes down the page looking for these
expressions - in chapter headings or sub-headings, or in the text itself.
Using Context Clues
Synonyms Explanations and definitions
Antonyms Situations
Examples
Context Clues
Using clues around a word to make inferences about a word’s meaning.

Why are context clues important?

They help us define unfamiliar, difficult words in texts.
They help us to become better, perceptive readers.
They come in handy during tests when a dictionary or the internet
is not available to us.
Where are context clues found?
In the same sentence as the difficult, unfamiliar word.
In the same paragraph or passage as the unknown word. Context
clues can be in the sentences following the word, for example.
They are called context clues, because they are found in the “context”
of the sentence or passage.
How to recognize a context clues
question on a test?
Frequent Question Stems:
-What is the meaning of the word ____?
-What does _____ mean in line 13?
-Select the word that shares the same meaning as the underlined word
in the passage.
-Which word would be a synonym for the underlined word as it is used
in the passage?
-Which evidence best helps the reader determine the meaning of the
word _______ as it is used in the sentence?
Types of Context Clues
1. Synonyms
2. Antonyms
3. Examples
4. Explanations and Definitions
5. Situations
Synonyms
Synonyms are used when the text has words or phrases that are similar
in meaning to the unknown word.
Synonym clues may be signaled by the following words: “like” or “as”.

Example:
Santa Clause was so portly that his doctor declared him overweight.
Synonyms

Look at the cartoon below about a pollster speaking to a citizen.

Can you figure out the meaning of the word apathy?

Apathy means
A. hatred
B. lack of interest
or care
C. kindness
Antonyms
The unfamiliar word is defined by using the word’s opposite or
contrasting meaning.
This type of context clue usually includes the words: whereas, unlike, as
opposed to, however, in contrast to, but, on the other hand.
Example: Unlike Jen, who was easygoing, Jackie was fastidious.
This is when an author gives the opposite of the unfamiliar word.
Example:
Unlike Jamaal’s room, which was immaculate, Jeffrey’s room was very
messy.

The word unlike lets you know an antonym is coming.

Even though you may not know what immaculate means, you know it’s
the opposite of “very messy”. Therefore it means something is very
clean.
 Look at the cartoon below about the fighting couple who are visiting
a marriage counselor. Can you figure out the meaning of the word
compatible?
Compatible means
A. disappointing
B. busy
C. in agreement

Cartoon © Kevin Smith from www.CartoonStock.com.

Examples

Examples are specific details in a text that are used to

clarify the meaning of a word.

It is often introduced with signal words and phrases like

for example, for instance, including, and such as.
Example
•All animals share the same vital needs, such as
food, water, and shelter.
Examples

Look at the cartoon and see if the examples help you understand the
meaning of the word alternative.
Frank and Ernest

Alternative means
A. expensive B. useless C. other

Cartoon © by Thaves. All rights reserved.

Explanations and Definitions
The unfamiliar word is directly defined in the sentence in which it
appears.
Definitions are usually set off by commas or dashes, and may include
the use of the words, as, or, that is, and in other words.
Example: Apples, red fruits that grow on trees, are my teacher’s
favorite food.
• In this case a word is defined for you in the sentence. This usually
happens right after the unfamiliar word appears and it is set off with
commas.
Example:
The arbitrator, the neutral person chosen to settle the dispute, arrived
at her decision.
We don’t know what arbitrator means, but luckily the definition is
given to us in the sentence.
Situations
The situation in which a word is used can also be helpful in determining
the meaning of that word. The meaning of a word may change
depending on its context, on how or how and where it is used.
Examples:
1. The boy wondered if he should have brought some back up, in case he
could not take on the Jabberwock by himself.
2. The hero’s conquest of the Jabberwock is an exemplary case of bravery.
3. The hero is lucky that the murder if the Jabberwock does not merit a
case in court.
In the first example “case” is part of the idiom “in case” which means
“if it should happen.” In the second sentence, “case” pertains to “an
instance of the occurrence.” Finally, “case’ in the third sentence refers to
“charges raised in court for a crime.”
Using Connotation and
Denotation
Connotation and Denotation
DENOTATION: it’s the actual definition of a word. It’s what you would
read when you look the word up in the dictionary.
CONNOTATION: it’s what we think about when we hear a word. It’s
what feelings we have when we hear it or read it.
Example
Denotation: a number equivalent to the sum of
six and seven; one more than 12; 7 less than 20

Connotation: fear, suspicion The connotation of

this number can make people feel so scared that
hotels don’t have floors numbered 13! The hotel
floors jump from 12 to 14 because the builders
thought that no one would want to stay in a room
on floor 13! I don’t think I would stay on it; would
you?
Cheap Denotation: low in cost

Connotation: poorly made, made with inferior ingredients or products

Critical Reading as Looking
for Ways of Thinking
UNIT I: Reading and Thinking Strategies across Text types
Critical Reading
Whenever you read and you evaluate claims, seek definitions, judge
information, demand proof, and question assumptions, you are
thinking critically. This type of reading goes beyond passively
understanding a text, because you process the author’s words and
make judgements after carefully considering the text’s message.
Reading critically means thinking
critically.
By reading critically, you find out the author’s views, ask questions,
evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the author’s argument, and
decide to agree or disagree with it. Thus, critical reading allows you to
enter into a dialogue with the author—and this deepens your
understanding of the issue or topic discussed.
Ways to Develop Critical Reading
Skills
1. Keeping a reading journal
2. Annotating the text
3. Outlining the text
4. Summarizing the text
5. Questioning the text
 Identifying and
Analyzing Claims
Determining Explicit and Implicit Information
Distinguishing Between the Types of Claims
Determining Explicit and Implicit
Information
• Critical reading also means that you are able to distinguish the
information that is clearly stated (explicit) in the text from ideas that
are suggested (implicit).

• Explicit information is clearly written and explained in the text so the

reader will not be confused.

• Implicit information is something that is implied, but not stated

outright in the text.
Distinguishing Between the
Types of Claims
Claims of fact
Claims of value
Claims of policy
CLAIM
• Claim is the writer’s point or position regarding the topic. It is also the
central argument or the thesis statement of the text. It is what the
writer tries to prove in the text by providing details , explanations and
other types of evidence.
Characteristics of Good Claims
1. Argumentative and debatable
2. Specific and focused
3. Interesting and engaging
4. Logical
 • Claims of fact
Types of Claim • Claims of value
• Claims of policy
CLAIMS OF FACT
• CLAIMS OF FACT state a quantifiable assertion, or a measurable topic.
They assert that something has existed, exists or will exist based in
data. They rely on reliable sources or systematic procedures to be
validated; this is what makes them different from inferences.

• - relates to the statement that can be verified, no matter how

difficult
• - inferred from a reliable source of information
• - claim that can be proven by steadfast information or data
Examples:

•a.a.The government
The government must
must devote
devote more
more funds to building schools than
funds to building schools than building
building
roads.
• roads.
•b.b.The deathpenalty
The death penalty
mustmust be revived.
be revived.
• c. Beauty contests should be banned.
c. Beauty contests should be banned.
• d. A national ID system should be adopted.
d. A national ID system should be
adopted.
CLAIMS OF VALUE

• - is based on personal taste or practices and morality

• - argues whether something is good or bad
• - a statement about which is better, more important, more desirable,
more needeD, or more useful
Examples:

• a. This is very good school.

• b. It is more advantageous for a Filipino child grow up speaking
Filipino instead of English.
• c. It is better to be feared than loved.
• d. Buying and fixing a house is better than a new one.
• e. It's more fun in the Philippines.
• f. It is better to have loved and lost than not
CLAIMS OF POLICY

• - an argument that asserts the implementation of a certain policy

• - an argument that asserts the implementation of a certain policy
• - posits that specific action should be chosen as solution to a
particular problem
Examples:
• a. The government must devote more funds to building schools than
building roads.
• b. The death penalty must be revived.
• c. Beauty contests should be banned.
• d. A national ID system should be adopted.
Ad Hominem – “Argument against
the man”
• Unfairly attacking a person instead of the
issue
• Attacking the character and/or reputation
of a position’s supporters; “Guilt by
association”
•Example: We cannot listen to John’s opinion
on global warming because he is a tree hugger.
Begging the Question
• The opinion to be proved is given as if it
were already proved.

• Example:
Global warming doesn’t exist because the
earth is not getting warmer.
False Cause (Cause and Effect)
• Citing a false or remote cause to explain a
situation

• Example:
The increase in global warming in the past
decade is because more teenagers are
using hairspray.
Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc
(False Cause)
• “After this, therefore because of this”
• Assuming that because two things
happened, the first one caused the
second one
• Example:
Every time my brother Bill uses hairspray,
it is an extremely hot day.
Either or Fallacy
• Discussing an issue as if there are only
two alternatives
• This fallacy ignores any other possible
alternatives
• Example:
We either ban hairspray or the world will
end.
Evasion
• Ignoring or evading the questions
• Example:
Reporter: “Senator, what is your view on
global warming?
Senator: “Global warming is definitely
something we need to look into.”
False Analogy
• Making a comparison between two
subjects that have more dissimilarities
than similarities.

• Example:
Using hairspray everyday is like launching
a nuclear weapon.
Oversimplification
• Making a complicated issue seem very
simple by using simple terms or
suppressing information
• Example:
Global warming is caused by using
hairspray and other beauty products.
Rationalization
• Giving incorrect reasons to justify your
position

• Example:
I don’t believe in global warming because I
like using hairspray.
Red Herring
• Presenting an argument unrelated to your
subject in order to distract the reader

• Example:
In order to really look at the problem of
global warming, we must first consider
how the homeless suffer when it is cold.
Slippery Slope
• Implying that one small step in the wrong
direction will cause catastrophic results

• Example:
If we use just one more can of hairspray
this month, earth as we know it will no
longer exist.
Two wrongs make a right
• Defending something done wrong by citing
another incident of wrong doing

• Example
American does not need to regulate
pollution because China is producing
more pollution than we are.
 Hasty Generalization
• An inference drawn from insufficient
evidence

• It is warmer this year in Las Vegas as

compared to last year; therefore, global
warming is rapidly accelerating.
 Straw Man
• An argument in which an opponent’s
position is represented as being more
extreme than it actually is

• Al Gore feels that all companies are

irresponsible and should be punished for
allowing emissions which causes global
warming.
 Equivocation
• Juvenile tricks of language

• If there really is global warming, how come

it is cooler in Fullerton this year?
 Non Sequitur
• “It does not follow”
• Argument in which claims, reasons, or
warrants fail to connect logically.

• Example
We should stop using hairspray because it
is snowing in New York.
Critical Reading as
Reasoning
UNIT I: Reading and Thinking Strategies across Text types
REASONING
• Is an act of giving statements for justification and explanation. It is the
ability of someone to defend something by giving out reasons.
Assertion

• A way to convince a critical reader to accept the writer’s claim is to formulate assertions.
Assertions, as defined by Tiongson (2016), are “declarative sentences that claim something is
true about something else.”These sentences may either be statements of truths or opinions.

• When someone makes a statement investing his strong belief in it, as if it is true, though it
may not be, he is making an assertion. Assertion is a stylistic approach or technique involving
a strong declaration, a forceful or confident and positive statement regarding a belief or a
fact. Often, it is without proof or any support. Its purpose is to express ideas or feelings
directly, for instance, “I have put my every effort to complete this task today.”

• An assertion is a statement used to make a declaration or to express strong belief on a topic,

often without evidence.
• An assertion can be formulated after reading a story or a poem, and even after watching a
play.
The Purpose of Writing an Assertion
• • It is for the writer to convey directly an idea or feeling and to
convince the reader to accept the writer ’s interpretation of a
particular literary work.
Types of Assertion
1. Fact
2. Convention
3. Opinion
4. Preference
Fact
• The statement that can objectively proven by proofs such as
experiences, witnessessurveys, testimonies.observation or
conclusions of studies of research.  
Convention
• These are the belief that are socially accepted but cannot be verified
objectively.
Opinion
• The statements that are based on facts. This type of assertion is open
to disputes, debates or arguments.
Preference
•  This is based on personal choice thus it is subjective but still cannot
be verified objectively.
Formulating assertions about the content
and the properties read in a text
• This assertion usually contain evaluative languages such as useful ,
significant, important, insightful, detailed, up- to - date,
comprehensive, practical, etc.
• Examine which ideas are facts or opinions
Make inferences or conclusions
Asses the over all quality of the text.
Formulating Counterclaims
• Counterclaims are claims made to rebut a previous claim. They
provide a contrasting perspective to the main argument. By being
able to locate and provide counterclaims to an argument, you show a
deep competence and familiarity with the writer's topic.
The following questions will help you formulate
a counterclaim:

• What are the major points on which you and the author can disagree?
• What is their strongest argument? What did they say to defend their
position?
• What are the merits of their view?
• What are the weaknesses or shortcomings in their argument? Are
there any hidden assumptions?
• Which lines from the text best support the counterclaim you have
formulated?
Assessing evidence
• Evidence is facts, data, information, examples—any form of information
that a writer uses to support the point she or he is trying to make.

• Don’t confuse evidence with citation.

• Evidence is the facts used to support the point.

• Citation tells the reader where the writer got the facts.
• Just because a writer does not cite her or his sources, does not mean
she or he has no evidence.
How do you find it?
• In assessing evidence, the first step is to find it or identify it. One of the best ways to do
this is to start with the point the author wants to make. Then look for specific details—
facts, data, examples, etc.—she or he provides to support that point. That is the
evidence for that point.
• Example
• Point: America is “a nation of frustrated altruists” (people who want to give generously
to others)
• Evidence:
• Poor people give a larger portion of their income to charity than rich people.
• Even when not giving to charity, American workers spend much of their money on others
(friends, children, co-workers, etc.).
• These are both specific facts or examples that support this point.
How do you evaluate it?
• There are many ways to evaluate the quality of someone’s evidence, but three criteria (standards) that are almost
always used are as follows:
• Is the evidence sufficient? Is there enough of it, or do you need more to feel convinced?
• Is the evidence relevant? Is it really about the point the author wants to prove, or did they go off on a tangent,
providing facts that don’t have anything to do with the point?
• Is the evidence representative? This is the hardest one to understand, but also the most
important. Representative evidence is evidence that accurately represents the whole topic, not just a select piece.
Another word for representative is typical.
• Example: Let’s say I want to prove that Americans are altruistic, and to prove it I point to Bill Gates. He gave away billions last year!
Does this prove my point? Is Gates a typical American? No—he has tons of money to give away, and he has made that a special
goal for himself. Therefore, he does not represent Americans in general. He is not the best example. A much better example would
be an ordinary working person who makes an average income, because such a person is more likely to represent a typical
American.
• Researchers go to a lot of trouble to make sure their evidence is representative. For example, in surveys and polls,
they work hard to get a random sample of people to talk to. Why? Because picking people at random means you
get a typical or representative example. You don’t accidentally limit yourself to members of a certain income group,
or ethnicity, or gender, or occupation, or some other category that might distort your results.
 Analyze
Identify the point the author is trying to prove.
Identify the evidence—specific facts, data,
statistics, examples, or other information that
supports that point.
Steps to analyze Identify the most important pieces of evidence
for that point.
and evaluate
Evaluate
evidence For each piece of evidence, ask the following
questions:
• Is it sufficient?
• Is it relevant?
• Is it representative?
• The more questions you answer “Yes” to, the better the quality of the
evidence.

• Of course, sometimes you won’t be able to tell if the evidence is sufficient

or representative (you can usually tell if it is relevant). In those cases, you
have to use your best judgment, based on whatever information you have
and on your overall sense of the author’s credibility. Remember that all
research is an uncertain process. You frequently have to make judgments
based on incomplete information. Part of the process of learning is
developing your skill at spotting reliable and unreliable evidence, even
without all the information that you need. Practice makes perfect!
Text as Connected
Discourse
Discourse
• A discourse is a formal and often lengthy discussion of a topic, where
concepts and insights are arranged in an organized and logical
manner. Also, it refers to the way how language is used to convey
meanings or to propel action or provoke a specific response. It is
often associated with speech, but it may also be written. It usually
serves as a writer’s or a scholar’s analysis of a concept or theory
proposed by another writer.
purpose
1. To inform– A discourse that aims to inform provides a descriptive
and comprehensive discussion on the topic. It points out what one
should know about a topic or subject.
2. 2. To persuade– A discourse that aims to persuade tries to convince
the readers that the proposed claim or solution is better than any
other proposal.
3. 3. To entertain– A discourse that aims to amuse provides a source of
entertainment for its readers.
• Analyzing a discourse is usually contextual. The reader tries to consider several factors that
may have influenced the writer to make certain claims. Those factors explain the author’s
biases, philosophy, and educational and professional backgrounds, among others.
• Below are three of those factors.
1. Culture– The beliefs, customs, attitudes, language, and other things that define culture
may influence the author’s perspective on several issues. Knowing about the culture the
author belongs to, the reader may understand his or her biases.
2. 2. Social environment– The author’s physical surroundings and social relationships, as well
as the culture of the time may have influenced his or her writing. For instance, during the
early decades of the 20th century, most writers produced works that were classified as
“modern” because of its distinct feature: stream of consciousness.
3. 3. Experiences– Personal accounts or first-hand experience of events, though subjective,
establish credibility and reliability of information presented in any discourse