Data Structures and Algorithm

(CS202)

Ms. Quratulain Shoaib

Lecturer
Department of Computer Science

1
Goals of this Course
1. Reinforce the concept that costs and benefits exist for
every data structure.

2. Learn the commonly used data structures.

 These form a programmer's basic data structure “toolkit.”

3. Understand how to measure the cost of a data structure

or program.
 These techniques also allow you to judge the merits of
new data structures that you or others might invent.
Objective of this Course
 Algorithms and Data Structures
 Static Data Structures
 Searching Algorithms
 Sorting Algorithms
 List implementation through Array
 ADT: Stack
 ADT: Queue
 Dynamic Data Structures (Linear)
 Linked List (Linear Data Structure)
 Dynamic Data Structures (Non-Linear)
 Trees, Graphs, Hashing
 Acknowledgment

This is to acknowledge that Lecture Handout and

Video Lectures of the course ‘ Data Structures and
Algorithm’ by Dr. Sohail Aslam, Virtual University of
Pakistan will be used as a learning material for this
course.

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 Objective of Lecture 1
• To know about Introduction to Data Structures

• To understand Selecting a Data Structure

• To understand Data Structure Philosophy

• To comprehend Array

• To comprehend List data structure

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 What is a Computer Program?
To exactly know, what is data structure? We must know:
What is a computer program?

Some mysterious
processing Output
Input

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 Definition
An organization of information, usually in memory, for better
algorithm efficiency

 such as queue, stack, linked list and tree.

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Data Structures
 Prepares the students for (and is a prerequisite for) the
more advanced material students will encounter in later
courses.

 Cover well-known data structures such as dynamic arrays,

linked lists, stacks, queues, tree and graphs.

 Implement data structures in C++

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Need for Data Structures
 Data structures organize data  more efficient programs.

 More powerful computers  more complex applications.

 More complex applications demand more calculations.

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 3 steps in the study of data
structures
Logical or mathematical description of the structure

Implementation of the structure on the computer

Quantitative analysis of the structure, which includes

determining the amount of memory needed to store the
structure and the time required to process the structure

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Organizing Data
 Any organization for a collection of records that can be
searched, processed in any order, or modified.

 The choice of data structure and algorithm can make the

difference between a program running in a few seconds or
many days.

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 What data structure to use?
Data structures let the input and output be represented in a way that
can be handled efficiently and effectively.

array

Linked list

queue
tree stack
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 Data Structures
Data structure is a representation of data and the operations
allowed on that data.

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Algorithm Analysis
 Problem Solving

 Space Complexity

 Time Complexity

 Classifying Functions by Their Asymptotic Growth

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1. Problem Definition
 What is the task to be accomplished?
Calculate the average of the grades for a given student
Find the largest number in a list

 What are the time /space performance requirements ?

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2. Algorithm Design/Specifications
 Algorithm: Finite set of instructions that, if followed,
accomplishes a particular task.
 Describe: in natural language / pseudo-code / diagrams /
etc.
 Criteria to follow:
Input: Zero or more quantities (externally produced)
Output: One or more quantities
Definiteness: Clarity, precision of each instruction
Effectiveness: Each instruction has to be basic enough
and feasible
Finiteness: The algorithm has to stop after a finite (may
be very large) number of steps

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4,5,6: Implementation, Testing and
Maintenance
 Implementation
Decide on the programming language to use
C, C++, Python, Java, Perl, etc.
Write clean, well documented code

 Test, test, test

 Integrate feedback from users, fix bugs, ensure

compatibility across different versions  Maintenance

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3. Algorithm Analysis
 Space complexity
How much space is required

 Time complexity
How much time does it take to run the algorithm

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Space Complexity
 Space complexity = The amount of memory required by an
algorithm to run to completion
the most often encountered cause is “memory leaks” –
the amount of memory required larger than the memory
available on a given system

 Some algorithms may be more efficient if data completely

loaded into memory
Need to look also at system limitations
e.g. Classify 2GB of text in various categories – can I
afford to load the entire collection?

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Space Complexity (cont…)

1. Fixed part: The size required to store certain

data/variables, that is independent of the size of the
problem:
- e.g. name of the data collection

2. Variable part: Space needed by variables, whose size is

dependent on the size of the problem:
- e.g. actual text
- load 2GB of text VS. load 1MB of text

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Time Complexity
 Often more important than space complexity
space available tends to be larger and larger
time is still a problem for all of us

 3-4GHz processors on the market

still …
researchers estimate that the computation of various
transformations for 1 single DNA chain for one single
protein on 1 TerraHZ computer would take about 1 year
to run to completion

 Algorithms running time is an important issue

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Efficiency
 A solution is said to be efficient if it solves the problem
within its resource constraints.
 Space
 Time

 The cost of a solution is the amount of resources that the

solution consumes.

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Selecting a Data Structure
Select a data structure as follows:
1. Analyze the problem to determine the resource
constraints a solution must meet.

2. Determine the basic operations that must be supported.

Quantify the resource constraints for each operation.

3. Select the data structure that best meets these

requirements.

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Some Questions to Ask
Are all data inserted into the data structure at the
beginning, or are insertions interspersed with other
operations?

Can data be deleted?

Are all data processed in some well-defined order, or is

random access allowed?

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Data Structure Philosophy
 Each data structure has costs and benefits.

 Rarely is one data structure better than another in all

situations.

 A data structure requires:

space for each data item it stores,
time to perform each basic operation,
programming effort.

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 Lists (Array /Linked List)
Items have a position in this Collection
Random access or not?
Array Lists
 internal storage container is native array
Linked Lists
public class Node
{ private Object data;
private Node next;
}
last
first

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Stacks
Collection with access only to the last element inserted
Last in first out
Data4 Top
insert/push
remove/pop Data3
top Data2
make empty
Data1

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 Queues
Collection with access only to the item that has been
present the longest
Last in last out or first in first out
enqueue, dequeue, front, rear
priority queues and deques

Front Rear
Deletion
Insertion

Data1 Data2 Data3 Data4

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Trees
Similar to a linked list
public class TreeNode
{ private Object data;
private TreeNode left;
private TreeNode right;
} Root

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 Hash Tables
Take a key, apply function
f(key) = hash value
store data or object based on hash value
Sorting O(N), access O(1) if a perfect hash function and
enough memory for table
how deal with collisions?

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 Other ADTs
Graphs
Nodes with unlimited connections between other nodes

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Other ADTs (cont…)
Data may be organized in many ways
E.g., arrays, linked lists, trees etc.
The choice of particular data model depends on two
considerations:
It must be rich enough in structure to mirror the actual
relationships of data in the real world
The structure should be simple enough that one can
effectively process the data when necessary

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 Example
Data structure for storing data of students:-
Arrays
Linked Lists
Issues
Space needed
Operations efficiency (Time required to complete operations)
 Retrieval
 Insertion
 Deletion

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 Abstract Data Types
In Object Oriented Programming data and the operations that
manipulate that data are grouped together in classes

Abstract Data Types (ADTs) or data structures are collections

store data and allow various operations on the data to access
and change it

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 Why Abstract?
Specify the operations of the data structure and leave
implementation details to later
in Java use an interface to specify operations

many, many different ADTs

picking the right one for the job is an important step in design
"Get your data structures correct first, and the rest of the
program will write itself."              
-Davids Johnson

High level languages often provide built in ADTs,

 the C++ Standard Template Library, the Java Standard Library

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 The Core Operations
Every Collection ADT should provide a way to:
add an item
remove an item
find, retrieve, or access an item
Many, many more possibilities
is the collection empty
make the collection empty
give me a sub set of the collection
and on and on and on…
Many different ways to implement these items each with
associated costs and benefits
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 Implementing ADTs
when implementing an ADT the operations and behaviors are
already specified

Implementer’s first choice is what to use as the internal

storage container for the concrete data type
the internal storage container is used to hold the items in the
collection
often an implementation of an ADT

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Pseudo Code and Flow Charts
 Pseudo Code
 Basic elements of Pseudo code
 Basic operations of Pseudo code
 Flow Chart
 Symbols used in flow charts
 Examples

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Pseudo Code and Flow Charts
There are two commonly used tools to help to
document program logic (the algorithm).
These are
Flowcharts
Pseudocode.
Generally, flowcharts work well for small problems
but Pseudocode is used for larger problems.

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Pseudo-Code
Pseudo-Code is simply a numbered list of instructions to
perform some task.

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 Writing Pseudo Code
Number each instruction
 This is to enforce the notion of an ordered sequence of operations
 Furthermore we introduce a dot notation (e.g. 3.1 come after 3 but
before 4) to number subordinate operations for conditional and
iterative operations

Each instruction should be unambiguous and effective.

Completeness. Nothing is left out.

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 Pseudo-code
Statements are written in simple English without regard to the
final programming language.

Each instruction is written on a separate line.

The pseudo-code is the program-like statements written for

human readers, not for computers. Thus, the pseudo-code
should be readable by anyone who has done a little
programming.

Implementation is to translate the pseudo-code into

programs/software, such as “C++” language programs.
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 Basic Elements of Pseudo-code
A Variable
 Having name and value
 There are two operations performed on a variable
 Assignment Operation is the one in which we associate a value to a
variable.
 The other operation is the one in which at any given time we intend
to retrieve the value previously assigned to that variable (Read
Operation)

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 Basic Elements of Pseudo-code
Assignment Operation
 This operation associates a value to a variable.
 While writing Pseudo-code you may follow your own
syntax.
 Some of the possible syntaxes are:
 Assign 3 to x
 Set x equal to 3
 x=3

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 Basic Operations of Pseudo-code
Read Operation
 In this operation we intend to retrieve the value previously
assigned to that variable. For example Set Value of x equal
to y
Read the input from user
 This operation causes the algorithm to get the value of a
variable from the user.
 Get x Get a, b, c

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 Flow Chart
 Some of the common
symbols used in flowcharts
are shown.

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Flow Chart (cont…)
With flowcharting, essential steps of an algorithm are
shown using the shapes above.
 The flow of data between steps is indicated by arrows,
or flowlines. For example, a flowchart (and equivalent
Pseudocode) to compute the interest on a loan is
shown below:

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CS Department, University of 48
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 Recommended Book
• Schaum's Outline Series, Theory and problems of Data Structures
by Seymour Lipschutz
• Data Structures using C and C++,2nd edition by A.Tenenbaum,
Augenstein, and Langsam
• Principles Of Data Structures Using C And C++ by Vinu V Das
• Sams Teach Yourself Data Structures and Algorithms in 24 Hours,
Lafore Robert
• Data structures and algorithms, Alfred V. Aho, John E. Hopcroft.
• Standish, Thomas A., Data Structures, Algorithms and Software
Principles in C, Addison-Wesley 1995, ISBN: 0-201-59118-9
• Data Structures & Algorithm Analysis in C++, Weiss Mark Allen

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 Questions
Any Question Please?

You can contact me at: quratulain@uosahiwal.edu.pk

Your Query will be answered within one working day.

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 Thanks

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