Control Systems

Lect. 4 PID
Basil Hamed
Design Specifications
• often use design specifications to describe what the system
should do and how it is done.
• These specifications are unique to each individual application and
often include specifications about relative stability, steady-state
accuracy (error), transient-response characteristics
• In some applications there may be additional specifications on
sensitivity to parameter variations, that is, robustness, or
disturbance rejection.

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Design Specifications
• The design of linear control systems can be carried out in either
the time domain or the frequency domain.
• For instance, steady-state accuracy is often specified with
respect to a step input, a ramp input, or a parabolic input, and
the design to meet a certain requirement is more conveniently
carried out in the time domain.
• Other specifications such as maximum overshoot, rise time, and
settling time are all defined for a unit-step input and, therefore,
are used specifically for time-domain design

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Design Specifications
• Thus, the choice of whether the design should be conducted in
the time domain or the frequency domain depends often on the
preference of the designer.
• We should be quick to point out, however, that in most cases,
time-domain specifications such as maximum overshoot, rise
time, and settling time are usually used as the final measure of
system performance.

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Various Controller Configurations

Various controller configurations in

control-system compensation,
(a) Series or cascade compensation,
(b) Feedback compensation,
(c) State-feedback control,
(d) Series-feedback compensation,
(e) Forward compensation with series
compensation,
(f) Feedforward compensation.

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Fundamental Principles of Design
• After a controller configuration is chosen, the designer must choose a
controller type that, with proper selection of its element values, will
satisfy all the design specifications.
• Engineering practice usually dictates that one choose the simplest
controller that meets all the design specifications.
• In most cases, the more complex a controller is, the more it costs,
the less reliable it is, and the more difficult it is to design.
• Choosing a specific controller for a specific application is often based
on the designer's past experience and sometimes intuition, and it
entails as much art as it does science.

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 PID
This chapter examines a particular control structure that
has become almost universally used in industrial control.
It is based on a particular fixed structure controller family,
the so-called PID controller family. These controllers have
proven to be robust and extremely beneficial in the control
of many important applications.
PID stands for:P (Proportional)
I (Integral)
D (Derivative)
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PID
• One of the commonly used controllers in the compensation
schemes is a PID controller
• PID applies a signal to the process that is proportional to the
actuating signal in addition to adding integral and derivative of
the actuating signal.
• These signal components are easily realized and visualized in
the time domain, PID controllers are commonly designed
using time-domain methods.

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Historical Note
• PID control is one of the earlier control strategies
• Early feedback control devices used the ideas of
proportional, integral and derivative action in their
structures.
• Its early implementation was in pneumatic devices, followed
by vacuum and solid state analog electronics, before arriving
at today’s digital implementation of microprocessors..

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Historical Note
• It has a simple control structure which was understood by
plant operators and which they found relatively easy to tune.
• According to a survey for process control systems conducted
in 1989, more than 95 of the control loops were of the PID
type

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Why PID Control
• Simple, easy to use
• Wide Application: Petrochemical, Pharmaceuticals, Food,
Chemical, Aerospace and Semiconductor, etc.
• Robust: Insensitive to changes to plant parameter and
disturbance.

Over 95% control loops are PID with two exceptions:

1. On/off control for those with low control requirement loops
2. Advanced control for those difficult systems and with high
control quality.
General Control System

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PID Block Diagram

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PID Mathematically
Consider the input error variable, e(t):
 Let p(t) = Kp*e(t) {p proportional to e }
 Let i(t) = Ki*∫e(t)dt {i integral of e }
 Let d(t) = Kd* de(t)/dt {d derivative of e}

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Four Modes of Controllers
Four modes of control commonly used for most
applications are:
 Proportional (P)
 Proportional plus Reset (PI)
 Proportional plus Rate (PD)
 Proportional plus Reset plus Rate (PID)

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Four Modes of Controllers

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Tips for Designing a PID Controller
When you are designing a PID controller for a given system, follow the steps shown
below to obtain a desired response.
1. Obtain an open-loop response and determine what needs to be improved

2. Add a proportional control to improve the rise time

3. Add a derivative control to improve the overshoot
4. Add an integral control to eliminate the steady-state error
5. Adjust each of Kp, Ki, and Kd until you obtain a desired overall response.
Lastly, please keep in mind that you do not need to implement all three controllers (proportional,
derivative, and integral) into a single system, if not necessary. For example, if a PI controller gives
a good enough response, then you don't need to implement derivative controller to the system.
Keep the controller as simple as possible.
The Characteristics of P, I, and D controllers
• A proportional controller (Kp) will have the effect of reducing the
rise time and will reduce, but never eliminate, the steady-state
error.
• An integral control (Ki) will have the effect of eliminating the
steady-state error, but it may make the transient response
worse.
• A derivative control (Kd) will have the effect of increasing the
stability of the system, reducing the overshoot, and improving
the transient response.
Proportional Control
By only employing proportional control, a steady state error occurs.

Proportional and Integral Control

The response becomes more oscillatory and needs longer to settle, the error disappears.

Proportional, Integral and Derivative Control

All design specifications can be reached.
The Characteristics of P, I, and D controllers

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 PI Equations

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PI Characteristics

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 PI Control

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 PD Controller

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 PD Controller

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 PD Controller

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PID Controller

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PID Controller Characteristics

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Design of PID Controllers
• Based on the knowledge of P, I and D
– trial and error
– manual tuning
– simulation

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Example Problem
Suppose we have a simple mass, spring, and damper problem.

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Example Problem
The modeling equation of this system is

Taking the Laplace transform of the modeling equation, we get

The transfer function between the displacement and the input then
becomes
Let
M = 1 kg b = 10 N s/m k = 20 N/m F = 1 N
Plug these values into the above transfer function

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Example Problem
The goal of this problem is to show you how each of kp,
ki , and kd contributes to obtain
• Fast rise time
• Minimum overshoot
• No steady-state error

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 Open-Loop Control - Example

num=1; 1
den=[1 10 20];
G( s )
2
step(num,den) s  10s  20

The DC gain of the plant transfer function is 1/20,

so 0.05 is the final value of the output to an unit
step input. This corresponds to the steady-state
error of 0.95, quite large indeed. Furthermore, the
rise time is about one second, and the settling
time is about 1.5 seconds. Let's design a controller
that will reduce the rise time, reduce the settling
time, and eliminate the steady-state error
Proportional Control - Example
The proportional controller (Kp) reduces the rise time, increases the overshoot, and reduces
the steady-state error. Kp
T( s )
MATLAB Example 2
Kp=300; s  10 s  ( 20  Kp )
Step Response
From: U(1)
1.4

num=[Kp];
Step Response
1.2 From: U(1)
1

den=[1 10 20+Kp]; 1 0.9

 
0.8
Amplitude

0.8

t=0:0.01:2;
To: Y(1)

0.7

0.6
K=300 0.6

Amplitude
step(num,den,t)

To: Y(1)
K=100
0.5
0.4

0.4
0.2
0.3

0 0.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Time (sec.) 0.1

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Time (sec.)
Proportional - Derivative - Example
Now, let's take a look at a PD control. From the table shown above, we see that the derivative
controller (Kd) reduces both the overshoot and the settling time. The closed-loop transfer
function of the given system with a PD controller is: Kd  s  Kp
T( s )
Kp=300; 2
s  ( 10  Kd )  s  ( 20  Kp )
Step Response
From: U(1)
1.4

Kd=10; 1
Step Response
From: U(1)
1.2

num=[Kd Kp]; 1
0.9

0.8

den=[1 10+Kd 20+Kp];

Amplitude

0.8 0.7

Kd=10
To: Y(1)

0.6 Kd=20

Amplitude
t=0:0.01:2;
0.6

To: Y(1)
0.5

0.4 0.4

step(num,den,t) 0.2
0.3

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 0.1

Time (sec.) 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

This plot shows that the derivative controller reduced both the overshoot and the settling
Time (sec.)

time, and had a small effect on the rise time and the steady-state error
Proportional - Integral - Example
The integral controller (Ki) decreases the rise time, increases both the overshoot and the
settling time, and eliminates the steady-state error
Kp  s  Ki
T( s )
MATLAB Example 3 2
s  10 s  ( 20  Kp )  s  Ki
Kp=30; Step Response
From: U(1)

Ki=70;
1.4
Step Response
From: U(1)
1.4
1.2

num=[Kp Ki]; 1
1.2

den=[1 10 20+Kp Ki]; Ki=70

Amplitude

To: Y(1) 0.8

Ki=100

A m plitude
0.8

T o: Y(1)
0.6

t=0:0.01:2; 0.4
0.6

0.4

step(num,den,t) 0.2

0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
0
Time (sec.) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Time (sec.)

We have reduced the proportional gain (Kp) because the integral controller also reduces the
rise time and increases the overshoot as the proportional controller does (double effect). The
above response shows that the integral controller eliminated the steady-state error
Proportional-Integral-Derivative Example
Now, let's take a look at a PID controller. The closed-loop transfer function of the given
system with a PID controller is:

After several trial and error runs, the gains Kp = 350, ki = 300, and kd = 50 provided the desired
response

Now, we have obtained a closed-loop

system with no overshoot, fast rise time,
and no steady-state error

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Proportional-Integral-Derivative(PID) Control
• For control over steady-state and transient errors we can
combine all three control strategies we have discussed is PID
control.
• PID combination is sometimes able to provide an acceptable
degree of error reduction simultaneously with stability and
damping.

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PID by MATLAB Implement Example
• Consider a system with transfer function
T=10K/[(1*2)s^2+ (1+2)s+1+AK]

Change it manually
Step Response
1.5

Amplitude
0.5

0
0 0.003 0.006 0.009 0.012 0.015 0.018
Time (sec.)

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PID by MATLAB Implement Example 2
• Consider a system with transfer function
T=(K*S+Ki)/[S^3+ 3*S^2+(2+K)*S+Ki]

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 step response
1.4

1.2

y(t) 0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t

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Tuning a PID
There is a fairly standard procedure for tuning PID controllers:
• Trial and Error Tuning
• Automatic PID Tuning
• Ziegler and Nichols Tuning
• Cohen-Coon Tuning

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Trial and Error Tuning

The trial and error tuning method is based on guess-and-check.

In this method, the proportional action is the main control, while
the integral and derivative actions refine it. The controller gain,
Kp, is adjusted with the integral and derivative actions held at a
minimum, until a desired output is obtained.

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Automatic PID Tuning
MATLAB provides tools for automatically choosing optimal PID
gains which makes the trial and error process described above
unnecessary. You can access the tuning algorithm directly using
pidtune or through a nice graphical user interface (GUI) using
pidtool.

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Ziegler-Nichols Tuning of PID Regulators
• J. G. Ziegler and N. B. Nichols recognized that the step responses
of a large number of processes control systems exhibits a process
reaction curve
• Ziegler & Nichols gave two methods for tuning the controller
• Open-Loop Tuning Method or Process Reaction Method

• Based on a stability boundary

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Ziegler-Nichols Open-Loop Tuning Method or Process
Reaction Method
This method remains a popular technique for tuning controllers that use
proportional, integral, and derivative actions. The Ziegler-Nichols open-loop
method is also referred to as a process reaction method, because it tests the
open-loop reaction of the process to a change in the control variable output.
This basic test requires that the response of the system be recorded,
preferably by a plotter or computer. Once certain process response values are
found, they can be plugged into the Ziegler-Nichols equation with specific
multiplier constants for the gains of a controller with either P, PI, or PID
actions.

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 Ziegler-Nichols Open-Loop Tuning Method or Process
Reaction Method

To use the Ziegler-Nichols open-loop tuning method, you must perform the
following steps:
1. Make an open loop step test
2. From the process reaction curve determine the transportation lag =L or
dead time= td, the time constant or time for the response to change =

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Ziegler-Nichols Open-Loop Tuning Method or Process
Reaction Method

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Ziegler-Nichols Open-Loop Tuning Method or Process
Reaction Method

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Sample of MATLAB Implement
Consider a system with transfer function
T=2/[(S+2)*(0.18*S^2+0.6*S+1)]
With L=0.38;R=1;

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 4

3 5

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 Step Response
1.5

y(t)

0.5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t

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Ziegler-Nichols closed-loop tuning method
• The Ziegler-Nichols closed-loop tuning method allows you to use the
ultimate gain value, Ku, and the ultimate period of oscillation, Pu, to
calculate K . It is a simple method of tuning PID controllers and can be
refined to give better approximations of the controller. You can obtain the
controller constants K , Ti , and Td in a system with feedback. The Ziegler-
Nichols closed-loop tuning method is limited to tuning processes that cannot
run in an open-loop environment

• Determining the ultimate gain value, Ku, is accomplished by finding the

value of the proportional-only gain that causes the control loop to oscillate
indefinitely at steady state

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Ziegler-Nichols closed-loop tuning method

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Z.-N. Tuning of PID Regulators Method
Two

Based on a
stability
boundary

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Worked out Example
Problem
You're a controls engineer working for Flawless Design company when your
optimal controller breaks down. As a backup, you figure that by using coarse
knowledge of a classical method, you may be able to sustain development of
the product. After adjusting the gain to one set of data taken from a
controller, you find that your ultimate gain is 4.3289.

From the adjusted plot below, determine the type of loop this graph
represents; then, please calculate K, Ti, and Td for all three types of
controllers.

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Worked out Example
Solution
From the fact that this graph oscillates and is
not a step function, we see that this is a
closed loop. Thus, the values will be
calculated accordingly.
We're given the Ultimate gain, Ku = 4.3289.
From the graph below, we see that the
ultimate period at this gain is Pu = 6.28

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Worked out Example

From this, we can calculate the Kc, Ti, and Td

for all three types of controllers. The results are
tabulated below. (Results were calculated from
the Ziegler-Nichols closed-loop equations.)

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Numerical Example
Consider a plant with a model given by

Find the parameters of a PID controller using the Z-N

oscillation method. Obtain a graph of the response to a
unit step input reference and to a unit step.
Example

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 Example

Hence, from Table , we have

K= 0.6 ku=4.8, Ti=1/2 Pu=1.81, Td=1/8 Pu=0.45

Ku = 8 and Pu =3.62

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Example

Kp = 4.8, Ki = 2.64, Kd = 2.16

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General comments about controller tuning
The different methodologies of controller tuning, known as Ziegler-Nichols
method have been illustrated. It is to be remembered that the recommended
settings are obtained from extensive experimentation with number of different
processes; there is no theoretical basis behind these selections. As a result, a
better combination of the P, I, D values may always be found, that will give
less oscillation and better settling time. But with no a-priori knowledge of the
system, it is always advisable to perform the experimentation and select the
controller settings, obtained from Ziegler-Nichols method. But there is always
scope for improving the performance of the controller by fine-tuning. So,
Ziegler-Nichols method provides initial settings that will give satisfactory, result,
but it is always advisable to fine-tune the controller further for the particular
process and better performance is expected to be achieved

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General Comments about Controller Tuning

Nowadays digital computers are replacing the conventional

analog controllers. P-I-D control actions are generated through
digital computations. Digital outputs of the controllers are
converted to analog signals before they are fed to the actuators.
In many cases, commercial software are available for Auto
tuning the process.

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 General Comments about Controller Tuning

a) Why is the proportional gain Kp for PI control is less than the value for
P-only control?
b) Why Kp for PID control is more than that PI?
Solution
c) Addition of integral control action to P-only control tends to make the
closed loop system more oscillatory; in order to overcome this problem,
the suggested value of Kp with ZN tuning is reduced.
d) Addition of derivative action again damps down the oscillation; as a
result larger value of Kp in a PID controller is permissible.

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