ST ALOYSIUS COLLEGE AUTONOMOUS

JABALPUR

SUBMITTED BY
SHRIRAM SONI

SUBMITTED TO
DR. RUPALI AHLUWALIA
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

ASSIGNMENT ON TOPIC
SCALING-II, THURSTONE
SCALE, LIKERT SCALE,
SEMANTING DIFFERENTIAL SCALE
 INTRODUCTION
In research we quite often face measurement problems (since we
want a valid measurement but may not obtain it), specially when
the concepts to be measured are complex and abstract and we do
not possess the standarised measurement tools. Alternatively, we
can say that while measuring attitudes and opinions, we face the
problem of their valid measurement. Similar problem may be faced
by a researcher, of course in a less degree, while measuring physical
or institutional concepts. As such we should study some procedures
which may enable us to measure abstract concepts more
accurately. This brings us to the studying of scaling techniques.
 MEANING
MEANING OF
OF SCALING
SCALING
Scaling describes the procedures of assigning numbers to various
degress of opinion, attitude and other concepts. This can be done in
two ways viz…, (i) making a judgement about some characteristic of an
individual and then placing him directly on a scale that has been
defined in terms of that characteristics and (ii) constructing
questionnaries in such a way that the score of an individual’s responses
assigns him a place on a scale. It may be stated here that a scale is a
continuum, consisting of the highest point and the lowest point along
with several intermediate points between these two extreme points.
These scale point positions are so related to each other that when the
first point happens to be the highest point, the second point indicates a
higher degree in terms of a given characteristics as compared to the
third point and the third point indicates a higher degree as compared to
fourth and so on.
SCALE CLASSIFICATION BASES
The number assigning procedures or the scaling procedures may be broadly
classified on one or more of the following base:-
1. SUBJECT ORIENTATION :- Under it a scale may be designed to
measure characteristics of the respondent who completes it or to
judge the stimulus object which is presented to the respondent.
In respect of the former, we presume that the stimuli presented
are sufficiently homogeneous so that the between stimuli
variation is small as compared to the variation among
respondents.
2. RESPONSE FORM :- Under this we may classify the scales as
categorical and comparative. Categorical scales are also known as
rating scales. These scales are used when a respondent scores
some object without direct reference to other objects. Under
comparative scales, which are also known as ranking scales,the
respondent is asked to compare two or more objects.
3. DEGREE OF SUBJECTIVITY :- With this basis the scale data may be
based on whether we measure subjective personal preferences or
simply make non-preference judgement. In former case, the
respondent is asked to choose which person he favours or which
solution he would like to see employed, whereas in the latter case he
is simply asked to judge which person is more effective in some aspect
or which solution will take fewer resources without reflecting any
personal preference.
4. SCALE PROPERTIES :- Considering scale properties, one may
classify the scales as nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales.
Nominal scales merely classify without indicating order, distance or
unique origin. Ordinal scales indicate magnitude relationships of
‘more than’ and ‘ less than’, but indicate no distance or unique origin.
Intervals scales have both order and distance values, but no unique
origin.
5. NUMBER OF DIMENSIONS :- In respect of this basis, scales can be
classified as ‘unidimensional’ and ‘multidimensional’ scales. Under
the former we measure only one attribute of the respondent or
object, whereas multidimensional scaling recognizes that an object
might be described better by using the concept of an attribute
space of ‘n’ dimensions, rather than a single dimension continuum.

6. SCALE CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE :- Following are the five main

techniques by which scales can be developed :-
a) ARBITRARY APPROACH
b) CONSENSUS APPROACH
c) ITEM ANALYSIS APPROACH
d) CUMULATIVE SCALES
e) FACTOR SCALES
 IMPORTANT SCALING
TECHNIQUE
1. RATING SCALES :- The rating scale involves qualitative description of a
limited number of as aspects of a thing or of trait of a person. When we use
rating scales ( or categorical scales ), we judge an object in absolute terms
against some specified criteria i.e., we judge properties of objects without
reference to other similar objects. These ratings may be in such forms as “
like – dislike “, “ above average, average, below average “, or other
classifications with more categories such as “ like very much – like some
what – neutral – dislike somewhat – dislike very much”; and so on. There is
no specific rule whether to use a two points scale, three points scale or
scale with still more points. In practice, three to seven points scales are
generally used for the simple reason that more points on a scale provide an
opportunity for greater sensitivity of measurement. Rating scale may be
either a graphic rating scale or itemized rating scale as shown in next slide:-
1. The graphic rating scale is quite simple and is commonly used in
practice. Under it the various points are usually put along the line to
form a vontinuum and the rater indicates his rating by simply
making a mark at the appropriate point on a line that runs from one
extreme to the others. The following is an example of five points
graphics rating scale when we we wish to ascertain people’s liking or
disliking any product:-
2. The itemised rating scale presents a series of statements from which
a respondent selects one as best reflecting his evaluation. These
statements are ordered progressively in terms of more or less of
some property. As an example of itemized scale can be given to
illustrate it.
FOR EXAMPLE : Suppose we wish to inquire as to how well does a
worker get along with his fellow workers ? In such a situation we
may ask the respondent to select one, to express his opinion, from
the following:-
. He is almost always involved in some frictions with a fellow workers.
. He is often at odd with one or more of his fellow workers.
. He sometimes gets involved in frictions.
. He infrequently become involved in friction with others.
. He almost never gets involved in friction with fellow workers.
 SCALE CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE

• In social science studies, while measuring attitudes of the people we generally

follow the technique of preparing the opinionnaire (or attitude scale) in such a
way that the score of the individual responses assigns him a place on a scale.
Under this approach, the respondent expresses his agreement or disagreement
with a number of statements relevant to the issue. While developing such
statements, the researcher must note the following two points:
• (i) That the statements must elicit responses which are psychologically related to
the attitude
• being measured;
• (ii) That the statements need be such that they discriminate not merely between
extremes of
• attitude but also among individuals who differ slightly.
A brief description of each of the above listed scales will be helpful:-
1. ARBITRARY SCALES :-
Arbitrary scales are developed on ad hoc basis and are designed
largely through the researcher’s own subjective selection of items. The
researcher first collects few statements or items which he believes are
unambiguous and appropriate to a given topic. Some of these are
selected for inclusion in the measuring instrument and then people
are asked to check in a list the statements with which they agree.
The chief merit of such scales is that they can be developed very easily,
quickly and with relatively less expense. They can also be designed to be
highly specific and adequate. Because of these benefits, such scales are
widely used in practice.
At the same time there are some limitations of these scales. The most
important one is that we do not have objective evidence that such scales
measure the concepts for which they have been developed. We have
simply to rely on researcher’s insight and competence.
2 . DIFFERENTIAL SCALES ( THURSTONE TYPE SCALE ):-
The name of L.L Thurstone is associated with differential scales which
have been developed using consensus scale approach. Under such an
approach the selection of items is made by a panel of judges who
evaluate the items in terms of whether they are relevant to the topic area
and unambiguous in implication. The detailed procedure is as under:
a) The researcher gathers a large number of statements, usually twenty or
more, that express various points of view toward a group, institution,
idea, or practice (i.e., statements belonging to the topic area).
(b) These statements are then submitted to a panel of judges, each of
whom arranges them in eleven groups or piles ranging from one extreme
to another in position. Each of the judges is requested to place generally
in the first pile the statements which he thinks are most unfavourable to
the issue, in the second pile to place those statements which he thinks
are next most unfavourable and he goes on doing so in this manner till in
the eleventh pile he puts the statements which he considers to be the
most favourable.
(c) This sorting by each judge yields a composite position for each of the
items. In case of marked disagreement between the judges in assigning a
position to an item, that item is discarded.
(d) For items that are retained, each is given its median scale value
between one and eleven as established by the panel. In other words, the
scale value of any one statement is computed as the ‘median’ position to
which it is assigned by the group of judges.
(e) A final selection of statements is then made. For this purpose a
sample of statements, whose median scores are spread evenly from one
extreme to the other is taken.
3.SUMMATED SCALES :- Summated scales (or Likert - type scales) are
developed by utilizing the item analysis approach where in a particular item
is evaluated on the basis of how well it discriminates between those persons
whose total score is high and those whose score is low. Those items or
statements that best meet this sort of discrimination test are included in the
final instrument. Thus, summated scales consist of a number of statements
which express either a favourable or unfavourable attitude towards the given
object to which the respondent is asked to react. The respondent indicates
his agreement or disagreement with each statement in the instrument. Each
response is given a numerical score, indicating its favourableness or
unfavourableness , and the scores are totalled to measure the respondent’s
attitude. In other words, the overall score represents the respondent’s
position on the continuum of favourable – unfavourableness towards an
issue. Most frequently used summated scales in the study of social attitudes
follow the pattern devised by Likert. For this reason they are often referred
to as Likert- type scales. In a Likert scale, the respondent is asked to respond
to each of the statements in terms of several degrees usually five degrees.
(but at times 3 or 7 may also be used) of agreement or disagreement.
For example, when asked to express opinion whether one considers his
job quite pleasant, the respondent may respond in any one of the
following ways: (i) strongly agree, (ii) agree, (iii) undecided, (iv) disagree,
(v) strongly disagree.
4. FACTOR SCALES:-
Factor scales are developed through factor analysis or on the basis of
inter correlations of items which indicate that a common factor accounts
for the relationships between items. Factor scales are particularly “useful
in uncovering latent attitude dimensions and approach scaling through
the concept of multiple-dimension attribute space.” More specifically the
two problems viz., how to deal. A detailed study of the factor scales and
particularly the statistical procedures involved in developing factor scales
is beyond the scope of this book. As such only an introductory idea of
factor scales is presented here
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